<?xml version='1.0' encoding='UTF-8'?><?xml-stylesheet href="http://www.blogger.com/styles/atom.css" type="text/css"?><feed xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2005/Atom' xmlns:openSearch='http://a9.com/-/spec/opensearchrss/1.0/' xmlns:georss='http://www.georss.org/georss'><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3713351170951673128</id><updated>2009-12-10T16:47:48.363-08:00</updated><title type='text'>FisicaNET Blog</title><subtitle type='html'>Blog do site FisicaNET</subtitle><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3713351170951673128/posts/default'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://www.fisica.net/blog/index.htm'/><link rel='hub' href='http://pubsubhubbub.appspot.com/'/><link rel='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#feed' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.fisica.net/blog/atom.xml'/><author><name>Alberto Ricardo Präss</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/00494192447938250801</uri><email>albertoprass@gmail.com</email></author><generator version='7.00' uri='http://www.blogger.com'>Blogger</generator><openSearch:totalResults>21</openSearch:totalResults><openSearch:startIndex>1</openSearch:startIndex><openSearch:itemsPerPage>25</openSearch:itemsPerPage><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3713351170951673128.post-4752014485713922047</id><published>2009-12-10T16:47:00.000-08:00</published><updated>2009-12-10T16:47:48.372-08:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Dicas de resolução de problemas'/><title type='text'>Estratégia de Resolução de porblemas de Ensino Médio envolvendo blocos</title><content type='html'>&lt;div style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Para resolver problemas envolvendo blocos devemos, inicialmente desenhar um diagrama de forças para o bloco. corpo.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Se o corpo está se movendo sobre o plano, ele estará em equilíbrio estático na direção perpendicular ao plano (PESO = NORMAL) A condição para que isto ocorra, é que a soma das componentes das forças nesta direção seja nula. I&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;A aceleração do bloco pode ser obtida calculando-se a resultante das componentes no sentido do movimento e&amp;nbsp; aplicando a 2ª Lei de Newton.&amp;nbsp; &lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; text-align: center;"&gt;Fr = m.a&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; text-align: left;"&gt;Conhecer todas as variáveis envolvidas na equação acima é fundamental.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif; text-align: left;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/3713351170951673128-4752014485713922047?l=www.fisica.net%2Fblog%2Findex.htm' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3713351170951673128/4752014485713922047/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='https://www.blogger.com/comment.g?blogID=3713351170951673128&amp;postID=4752014485713922047' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3713351170951673128/posts/default/4752014485713922047'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3713351170951673128/posts/default/4752014485713922047'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://www.fisica.net/blog/2009/12/estrategia-de-resolucao-de-porblemas-de.html' title='Estratégia de Resolução de porblemas de Ensino Médio envolvendo blocos'/><author><name>Alberto Ricardo Präss</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/00494192447938250801</uri><email>albertoprass@gmail.com</email><gd:extendedProperty xmlns:gd='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005' name='OpenSocialUserId' value='08794662322081882193'/></author><thr:total xmlns:thr='http://purl.org/syndication/thread/1.0'>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3713351170951673128.post-5168243833200239840</id><published>2009-11-05T14:12:00.000-08:00</published><updated>2009-11-05T14:12:54.133-08:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Deus'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Termodinâmica'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Evolução'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Darwin'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Cosmologia'/><title type='text'>A evolução contradiz a segunda lei da termodinâmica?</title><content type='html'>&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Se caminhamos da ordem para a desordem, como a natureza sitemas poderia ter originado sistemas vivos e tão complexos? Esse argumento vem sendo usado em muitas ocasiões para invalidar o modelo de Darwin e acho importante desmistifica-lo.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Resposta:&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Em sistemas abertos, sistemas que trocam energia e entropia com o ambiente, é possível aparecer ordem (diminuição da entropia) sem violar a Segunda Lei da Termodinâmica (SLT). A SLT afirma que no sistema total, que neste caso é o sistema aberto mais o ambiente, a entropia aumenta. A SLT não impede a possibilidade de que em uma parte do grande sistema haja diminuição da entropia. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Os seres vivos podem diminuir ou manter constante sua entropia por exportar entropia para o ambiente. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Um refrigerador, para dar um exemplo de um sistema não-vivo, é um sistema que também diminui localmente a entropia e não viola a SLT.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Desta forma a SLT não invalida o darwinismo. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Interessantes refutações dos argumentos antievolucionistas encontrarás nas obras de Richard Dawkins por exemplo.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Segue em frente com as tuas idéias evolucionistas, assumindo uma posição crítica em relação a elas e às supostas refutações do darwinismo! Esta é a verdadeira atitude científica, que não se dobra para verdades reveladas e que somente aceita idéias que passem pelo crivo da racionalidade!!&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Prof. Fernando Lang da Silveira - IF-UFRGS&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;www.if.ufrgs.br/~lang/&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://www.fisica.net/epistemologia/STYER_Entropy_and_Evolution.pdf"&gt;Leia um artigo da Amer. J. Phys. explicando em linguagem técnica essa questão.&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/3713351170951673128-5168243833200239840?l=www.fisica.net%2Fblog%2Findex.htm' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3713351170951673128/5168243833200239840/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='https://www.blogger.com/comment.g?blogID=3713351170951673128&amp;postID=5168243833200239840' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3713351170951673128/posts/default/5168243833200239840'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3713351170951673128/posts/default/5168243833200239840'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://www.fisica.net/blog/2009/11/evolucao-contradiz-segunda-lei-da.html' title='A evolução contradiz a segunda lei da termodinâmica?'/><author><name>Alberto Ricardo Präss</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/00494192447938250801</uri><email>albertoprass@gmail.com</email><gd:extendedProperty xmlns:gd='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005' name='OpenSocialUserId' value='08794662322081882193'/></author><thr:total xmlns:thr='http://purl.org/syndication/thread/1.0'>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3713351170951673128.post-8554186407404088263</id><published>2009-08-12T21:05:00.000-07:00</published><updated>2009-08-12T21:08:31.620-07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='profissão de físico'/><title type='text'>Profissão de físico no Brasil</title><content type='html'>&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; Sem prejuízo do exercício das mesmas atividades por outros profissionais igualmente habilitados na forma da legislação específica, o Físico poderá, entre outras atividades:&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;I - realizar pesquisas científicas e tecnológicas.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;II - difundir conhecimentos, orientar trabalhos técnicos e científicos, ministrar palestras, seminários e cursos, organizar eventos científicos, treinar especialistas e técnicos;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;III - administrar atividades de pesquisas e aplicações, planejar e executar pesquisas científicas e tecnológicas, planejar instalações, especificar equipamentos e infra-estrutura laboratorial;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;IV - realizar medidas físicas no âmbito de sua especialidade;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;V - projetar, desenvolver, construir, calibrar, fazer manutenção, fiscalizar, auditar e controlar dispositivos, equipamentos e sistemas no âmbito de sua especialidade;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;VI - elaborar documentação técnica e científica, realizar perícias e auditorias, emitir e assinar laudos técnicos e pareceres, definir procedimentos operacionais, de segurança, de radioproteção e de análise de impacto ambiental;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;VII - aplicar princípios, conceitos e métodos da Física em atividades específicas envolvendo radiação ionizante e não ionizante, estudos ambientais, análise de sistemas ecológicos, estudos na área financeira e outros;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;VIII - desenvolver programas e aplicativos computacionais baseados em modelos físicos;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;IX - Atuar na área médica em serviços de radioterapia, radiodiagnóstico, medicina nuclear, proteção radiológica e outros para os quais esteja especificamente habilitado pelo Conselho Federal de Física.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;http://www.camara.gov.br/sileg/Prop_Detalhe.asp?id=395897&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/3713351170951673128-8554186407404088263?l=www.fisica.net%2Fblog%2Findex.htm' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3713351170951673128/8554186407404088263/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='https://www.blogger.com/comment.g?blogID=3713351170951673128&amp;postID=8554186407404088263' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3713351170951673128/posts/default/8554186407404088263'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3713351170951673128/posts/default/8554186407404088263'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://www.fisica.net/blog/2009/08/profissao-de-fisico-no-brasil.html' title='Profissão de físico no Brasil'/><author><name>Alberto Ricardo Präss</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/00494192447938250801</uri><email>albertoprass@gmail.com</email><gd:extendedProperty xmlns:gd='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005' name='OpenSocialUserId' value='08794662322081882193'/></author><thr:total xmlns:thr='http://purl.org/syndication/thread/1.0'>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3713351170951673128.post-9137897215840009221</id><published>2009-04-20T22:59:00.000-07:00</published><updated>2009-04-26T19:25:19.399-07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Dicas'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Ajuda'/><title type='text'>Regras para utilizar meu apoio pelo Messenger e e-mail</title><content type='html'>No meu site www.fisica.net existe muito material útil.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Aprenda a usar o Google. Se algo existe, o Google encontra. Uso ele desde 1999 e GARANTO!&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Exemplo:&lt;br /&gt;Quer saber o que é CALOR? Digite  define:calor&lt;br /&gt;Deseja algum material de qualidade, especifique que seja PDF (bla, bla  filetype:pdf)&lt;br /&gt;Está querendo um ppt pronto?, especifique filetype:ppt&lt;br /&gt;E por aí vai. NÃO EXISTE CONTEÚDO DE ENSINO MÉDIO QUE NÃO TENHA ALGUM BOM SITE NO GOOGLE.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Meu Messenger está lotado, por isso, não é possível eu adicionar, mas posso ser adicionado.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Seja objetivo, sem ser agressivo. Não desejo fazer amigos pelo MSN. Amigos já tenho em número e qualidade aqui na minha cidade.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Orkut é para contatos rápidos. Não responderei dúvidas longas por ele. Use e-mail.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Não faço trabalhos escolares&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Não resolvo exercícios, a não ser que eu me sinta atraído pelo problema.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Odeio fazer continhas. Sou físico e não matemático.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Se precisar de ajuda em algum exercício, desenvolva o SEU raciocínio e me apresente de tal forma que eu possa entender qual a sua dificuldade. É importante que diga se é estudante de ensino médio, superior , etc. Preciso adequar a linguagem.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Recebo dezenas de pedidos a cada dia. Não tenho tempo, saúde e paciência para responder a todos os e-mails.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Moro em Porto Alegre, RS.&lt;br /&gt;Fiz graduação em Física, especialização em Radiações e mestrado em Física&lt;br /&gt;Lecionei Física para 8a série, ensino médio e pré-vestibular por 15 anos. Agora parei.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Me dedico as minhas pesquisas na universidade e a direção de tecnologia do Grupo Universitário ( www.universitario.com.br ).&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Atualmente luto para viver com uma doença cruel chamada LÚPUS (faça um curso de Medicina se desejar entender o que é), isso tem roubado mais de 50% do meu tempo.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Sobre Lúpus, leia http://imunologico.blogspot.com&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/3713351170951673128-9137897215840009221?l=www.fisica.net%2Fblog%2Findex.htm' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3713351170951673128/9137897215840009221/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='https://www.blogger.com/comment.g?blogID=3713351170951673128&amp;postID=9137897215840009221' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3713351170951673128/posts/default/9137897215840009221'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3713351170951673128/posts/default/9137897215840009221'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://www.fisica.net/blog/2009/04/regras-para-utilizar-meu-apoio-pelo.html' title='Regras para utilizar meu apoio pelo Messenger e e-mail'/><author><name>Alberto Ricardo Präss</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/00494192447938250801</uri><email>albertoprass@gmail.com</email><gd:extendedProperty xmlns:gd='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005' name='OpenSocialUserId' value='08794662322081882193'/></author><thr:total xmlns:thr='http://purl.org/syndication/thread/1.0'>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3713351170951673128.post-1822947165812478184</id><published>2009-04-09T10:13:00.000-07:00</published><updated>2009-04-09T10:23:50.327-07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Relatividade Restrita'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Luz'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Teoria da relatividade'/><title type='text'>Why is c the symbol for the speed of light?</title><content type='html'>&lt;div style="text-align: justify; font-family: verdana;"&gt;"As for c, that is the speed of light in vacuum, and if you ask why c, the answer is that it is the initial letter of celeritas, the Latin word meaning speed."&lt;br /&gt;Isaac Asimov in "C for Celeritas (1959)" [1]&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;A Short Answer&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Although c is now the universal symbol for the speed of light, the most common symbol in the nineteenth century was an upper-case V which Maxwell had started using in 1865.  That was the notation adopted by Einstein for his first few papers on relativity from 1905.  The origins of the letter c being used for the speed of light can be traced back to a paper of 1856 by Weber and Kohlrausch [2].  They defined and measured a quantity denoted by c that they used in an electrodynamics force law equation.  It became known as Weber's constant and was later shown to have a theoretical value equal to the speed of light times the square root of two.  In 1894 Paul Drude modified the usage of Weber's constant so that the letter c became the symbol for the speed of electrodynamic waves [3].  In optics Drude continued to follow Maxwell in using an upper-case V for the speed of light.  Progressively the c notation was used for the speed of light in all contexts as it was picked up by Max Planck, Hendrik Lorentz and other influential physicists.  By 1907 when Einstein switched from V to c in his papers, it had become the standard symbol for the speed of light in vacuum for electrodynamics, optics, thermodynamics and relativity.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Weber apparently meant c to stand for "constant" in his force law, but there is evidence that physicists such as Lorentz and Einstein were accustomed to a common convention that c could be used as a variable for velocity.  This usage can be traced back to the classic Latin texts in which c stood for "celeritas" meaning "speed".  The uncommon English word "celerity" is still used when referring to the speed of wave propagation in fluids.  The same Latin root is found in more familiar words such as acceleration and even celebrity, a word used when fame comes quickly.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Although the c symbol was adapted from Weber's constant, it was probably thought appropriate for it to represent the velocity of light later on because of this Latin interpretation.  So history provides an ambiguous answer to the question "Why is c the symbol for the speed of light?", and it is reasonable to think of c as standing for either "constant" or "celeritas".&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The Long Answer&lt;br /&gt;In 1992 Scott Chase wrote on sci.physics that "anyone who read hundreds of books by Isaac Asimov knows that the Latin word for `speed' is `celeritas', hence the symbol `c' for the speed of light".  Asimov had written an article entitled "C for Celeritas" in a sci-fi magazine in 1959 and had reprinted it in some of his later books [1].  Scott was the first editor of the Physics FAQ on Usenet and Asimov's explanation was later included in the relativity section as the "probable" answer to the question "Why is c the symbol for the speed of light?".  Since then, Asimov's answer has become a factoid repeated in many articles and books.  But if you go back and read his essay you discover that Asimov merely stated his case in one sentence, and made no further attempt to justify his theory for the origin of the "c" notation.  So is his claim really born out by history, or was c originally introduced as a variable standing for something else?  The special theory of relativity is based on the principle that the speed of light is constant; so did c stand for "constant", or did it simply appear by accident in some text where all the other likely variables for speed had already been used up?  These questions have been asked repeatedly on usenet, and now after much searching through old papers and books the answers can be revealed.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;A lower-case c has been consistently used to denote the speed of light in textbooks on relativity almost without exception since such books started to be written.  For example, the notation was used in the earliest books on relativity by Lorentz (1909) [4], Carmichael (1913) [5], Silberstein (1914) [6], Cunningham (1915) [7], and Tolman (1917) [8].  That was not the case just a few years before.  In his earliest papers on relativity from 1905--1907 Einstein began by using an upper-case V for the speed of light [9].  At that time he was also writing papers about the thermodynamics of radiation, and in those he used up upper-case L [10].  All of these papers appeared in volumes of the German periodical Annalen Der Physik.  Einstein's notation changed suddenly in 1907 in a paper for the Journal Jahrbuch der Radioaktivität und Elektronik [11].  There he used the lower case c, and his most famous equation E = mc2 came into being.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;It is not difficult to find where the upper case V had come from.  Maxwell used it extensively in his publications on electrodynamics from as early as 1865 [12].  It was the principal symbol for the speed of light in his 1873 treatise on electrodynamics [13].  By the 1890s Maxwell's book was in wide circulation around the world and there were translations available in French and German.  It is no surprise then that the upper-case V is found in use in such papers as the 1887 report of Michelson and Morley on their attempt to find seasonal variations in the speed of light [14].  That was written in the United States, but the same notation was also found across Europe, from papers by Oliver Lodge [15] and Joseph Lamor [16] in England, to the lecture notes of Poincaré in France [17], and the textbooks of Paul Drude in Germany [18] and Lorentz in the Netherlands [19].  Einstein's education at the Polytechnik in Zurich had not covered Maxwell's theory of Electrodynamics in the detail he would have liked.  But he had read a number of extra textbooks on the new Electrodynamics as self study, so he would have been familiar with the standard notations.  From 1905 he wrote his first papers on relativity, and there is nothing extraordinary in his choice of the symbol V for the speed of light [9].&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Why then, did he change it to c in 1907?  At that time he still worked as a clerk in the Bern patent office, but for the previous two years he had been in regular correspondence with eminent physicists such as Max Laue, Max Planck, Wilhelm Wien and Johannes Stark.  Stark was the editor of the Jahrbuch, and had asked Einstein to write the article in which he was to first use the letter c.  Einstein mentioned to Stark that it was hard for him to find the time to read published scientific articles in order to acquaint himself with all the work others have done in the field, but he had seen papers by Lorentz, Kohn, Monsegeil and Planck [20].  Lorentz and Planck in particular had been using c for the speed of light in their work.  Lorentz had won the 1902 Nobel prize for physics, and it is not surprising that physicists in Germany had now taken up the same notation.  It is also not surprising that Einstein, who was looking for an academic position, aligned himself to the same conventions at that time.  Another reason for him to make the switch was that the letter c is simply more practical.  The upper-case V would have been easily confused with the lower case v appearing in the equations of relativity for the velocity of moving bodies or frames of reference.  Einstein must have found this confusion inconvenient, especially in his hand written notes.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Looking back at papers of the late 1890s, we find that Max Planck and Paul Drude in particular were using the symbol c at that time.  The name of Drude is less well known to us today.  He worked on relations between the physical constants and high precision measurements of their value.  These were considered to be highly worthy pursuits of the time.  Drude had been a student of Voigt, who himself had used a Greek ω for the speed of light when he wrote down an almost complete form of the Lorentz transformations in 1887 [43].  Voigt's ω was later used by a few other physicists [44, 45], but Drude did not use his teacher's notation.  Drude first used the symbol c in 1894, and in doing so he referenced a paper by Kirchhoff [3].  As already mentioned, Paul Drude also used V.  In fact he made a distinction of using V in the theory of optics for the directly-measured speed of light in vacuum, whereas he used c for the electromagnetic constant that was the theoretical speed of electromagnetic waves.  This is seen especially clearly in his book "Theory of Optics" of 1900 [21], which is divided into two parts with V used in the first and c in the second part.  Although Maxwell's theory of light predicted that they had the same value, it was only with the theory of relativity that these two things were established as fundamentally the same constant.  Other notations vied against Drude's and Maxwell's for acceptance.  Herglotz [46] opted for an elaborate script B, while Himstedt [47], Helmholtz [48] and Hertz [49] wrote the equations of electrodynamics with the letter A for the reciprocal of the speed of light.  In 1899 Planck backed Drude by using c, when he wrote a paper introducing what we now call the Planck scale of units based on the constants of electrodynamics, quantum theory and gravity [22].  Drude and Planck were both editors of the prestigious journal Annalen Der Physik, so they would have had regular contact with most of the physicists of central Europe.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Lorentz was next to change notation.  When he started writing about light speed in 1887 he used an upper case A [23], but then switched to Maxwell's upper case V [24].  He wrote a book in 1895 [25] that contained the equations for length contraction, and was cited by Einstein in his 1907 paper.  While Drude had started to use c, Lorentz was still using V in this book.  He continued to use V until 1899 [26], but by 1903 when he wrote an encyclopedia article on electrodynamics [27] he too used c.  Max Abraham was another early user of the symbol c in 1902, in a paper that was seen by Einstein [28].  From Drude's original influence, followed by Planck and Lorentz, by 1907 the c symbol had become the prevailing notation in Germanic science and it made perfect sense for Einstein to adopt it too.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;In France and England the electromagnetic constant was symbolised by a lower case v rather than Drude's c.  This was directly due to Maxwell, who wrote up a table of experimental results for direct measurements of the speed of light on the one hand and electromagnetic experiments on the other.  He used V for the former and v for the latter.  Maxwell described a whole suite of possible experiments in electromagnetism to determine v.  Those that had not already been done were performed one after the other in England and France over the three decades that followed [29].  In this context, lower case v was always used for the quantity measured.  But using v was doomed to pass away once authors had to write relativistic equations involving moving bodies, because v was just too common a symbol for velocity.  The equations were much clearer when something more distinct was used for the velocity of light to differentiate it from the velocity of moving bodies.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;While Maxwell always used v in this way, he also had a minor use for the symbol c in his widely read treatise of 1873.  Near the end he included a section about the German electromagnetic theory that had been an incomplete precursor to his own formulation [30].  This theory, expounded by Gauss, Neumann, Weber, and Kirchhoff, attempted to combine the laws of Coulomb and Ampère into a single action-at-a-distance force law.  The first versions appeared in Gauss's notes in 1835 [31], and the complete form was published by Weber in 1846 [32].  Many physicists of the time were heavily involved in the process of defining the units of electricity.  Coulomb's law of electrostatic force could be used to give one definition of the unit of charge while Ampère's force law for currents in wires gave another.  The ratio between these units had the dimension of a velocity, so it became of great practical importance to measure its value.  In 1856 Weber and Kohlrausch published the first accurate measurement [2].  To give a theoretical backing they rewrote Weber's force law in terms of the measured constant and used the symbol c.  This c appeared in numerous subsequent papers by German physicists such as Kirchhoff, Clausius, Himstedt, and Helmholtz, who referred to it as "Weber's constant".  That continued until the 1870s, when Helmholtz discredited Weber's force law on the grounds of energy conservation, and Maxwell's more complete theory of propagating waves prevailed.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Two papers using Weber's force law are of particular note.  One by Kirchhoff [33] and another by Riemann [34] related Weber's constant to the velocity at which electricity propagated.  They found this speed to be Weber's constant divided by the square root of two and it was very close to the measured speed of light.  It was already known from experiments by Faraday that light was affected by magnetic fields, so there was already much speculation that light could be an electrodynamic phenomenon.  This was the inspiration for Maxwell's work on electrodynamics, so it is natural that he finally included a discussion of the force law in his treatise [30].  The odd thing is that when Maxwell wrote down the force law, he changed the variable c so that it was smaller than Weber's constant by a factor of the square root of two.  So Maxwell was probably the first to use c for a value equal to the speed of light, although he defined it as the speed of electricity through wires instead.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;So c was used as Weber's constant having a value of the speed of light times the square root of two, and this can be related to the later use of c for the speed of light itself.  Firstly, when Maxwell wrote Weber's force law in his treatise in 1873, he modified the scale of c in the equation so that it reduced by a factor of the square root of two.  Secondly, when Drude first used c in 1894 for the speed of light [3], the paper by Kirchhoff that he cited [35] was using c for Weber's constant, so Drude had made the same adjustment as Maxwell.  It is impossible to say if Drude copied the notation from Maxwell, but he did go one step further in explicitly naming his c as the velocity of electrodynamic waves which by Maxwell's theory was also the speed of light.  He seems to have been the first to do so, with Lorentz, Planck, and others following suit a few years later.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;So to understand why c became the symbol for the speed of light we now have to find out why Weber used it in his force law.  In the paper of 1856 [2] Weber's constant was introduced with these words "and the constant c represents that relative speed, that the electrical masses e and e must have and keep, if they are not to affect each other."  So it appears that c originated as a letter standing for "constant" rather than "celeritas".  However, it had nothing to do with the constancy of the speed of light until much later.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Despite this, there could still be some substance to Asimov's claim that c is the initial letter of "celeritas".  It is true, after all, that c is also often used for the speed of sound, and it is commonly used as the velocity constant in the wave equation.  Furthermore, this usage was around before relativity.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Starting with the Latin manuscripts of the 17th century, such as Galileo's "De Motu Antiquiora" or Newton's "Principia", we find that they often use the word "celeritas" for speed.  However, their writing style was very geometric and descriptive.  They did not tend to write down formulae where speed is given a symbol.  But an example of the letter c being used for speed can be found from the eighteenth century.  In 1716 Jacob Hermann published a Latin text called Phoronomia, meaning the science of motion [36].  In it he developed Newton's mechanics in a form more familiar to us now, except for the Latin symbols.  His version of the basic Newtonian equation F = ma was dc = p dt, where c stands for "celeritas" meaning speed, and p stands for "potentia", meaning force.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Apart from in relativity, the most pervasive use of c to represent a speed today is in the wave equation.  In 1747 Jean d'Alembert made a mathematical study of the vibrating string and discovered the one dimensional wave equation, but he wrote it without the velocity constant.  Euler generalised d'Alembert's equation to include the velocity, denoting it by the letter a [38].  The general solution is y = f(x - at) + f(x + at), representing two waves of fixed shape travelling in opposite directions with velocity a.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Euler was one of the most prolific mathematicians of all time.  He wrote hundreds of manuscripts and most of them were in Latin.  If anyone established a convention for using c for "celeritas", it has to have been Euler.  In 1759 he studied the vibrations of a drum, and moved on to the 2-dimensional wave equation.  This he wrote in the form we are looking for with c now the velocity constant [39].&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The wave equation became a subject of much discussion, being investigated by all the great mathematicians of the époque including Lagrange, Fourier, Laplace, and Bernoulli.  Through their works, Euler's form of the wave equation with c for the speed of wave propagation was carved in stone for good.  To a first approximation, sound waves are also governed by the same wave equation in three dimensions, so it is not surprising that the speed of sound also came to be denoted by the symbol c.  This predates relativity and can be found, for example, in Lord Rayleigh's classic text "Theory of Sound" [40].  Physicists of the nineteenth century would have read the classic Latin texts on physics, and would have been aware that c could stand for "celeritas".  As an example, Lorentz used c in 1899 for the speed of the Earth through the ether [41].  We even know that Einstein used it for speed outside relativity, because in a letter to a friend about a patent for a flying machine, he used c for the speed of air flowing at a mere 4.9 m/s [42].&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;In conclusion, although we can trace c back to Weber's force law where it most likely stood for "constant", it is possible that its use persisted because c could stand for "celeritas" and had therefore become a conventional symbol for speed.  We cannot tell for sure how Drude, Lorentz, Planck or Einstein thought about their notation, so there can be no definitive answer for what it stood for then.  The only logical answer is that when you use the symbol c, it stands for whatever possibility you prefer.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;References&lt;br /&gt;[1] Isaac Asimov "C for Celeritas" in "The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction", Nov-59 (1959), reprinted in "Of Time, Space, and Other Things", Discus (1975), and "Asimov On Physics", Doubleday (1976)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;[2] R. Kohlrausch and W.E. Weber, "Ueber die Elektricitätsmenge, welche bei galvanischen Strömen durch den Querschnitt der Kette fliesst", Annalen der Physik, 99, pg 10 (1856)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;[3] P. Drude, "Zum Studium des elektrischen Resonators", Göttingen Nachrichten (1894), pgs 189--223&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;[4] H.A. Lorentz, "The theory of Electrons and its applications to the phenomena of light and radiant heat".  A course of lectures delivered in Columbia University, New York, in March and April 1906, Leiden (1909)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;[5] R.D. Carmichael, "The Theory of Relativity", John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons (1913)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;[6] L. Silberstein, "The Theory of Relativity", Macmillan (1914)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;[7] E. Cunningham, "The Principle of Relativity", Cambridge University Press (1914)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;[8] R.C. Tolman, "The Theory of the Relativity of Motion", University of California Press (1917)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;[9] A. Einstein, From "The Collected Papers, Vol 2, The Swiss Years: Writings, 1900--1909", English Translation, he wrote five papers using V, e.g. "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies", Annalen Der Physik 17, pgs 891--921 (1905), "On the Inertia of Energy Required by the Relativity Principle", Annalen Der Physik 23, pgs 371--384 (1907)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;[10] A. Einstein, e.g. "On the Theory of Light Production and Light Absorption", Annalen Der Physik, 20, pgs 199--206 (1906)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;[11] A. Einstein, "On the Relativity Principle and the Conclusions Drawn From It", Jahrbuch der Radioaktivität und Elektronik 4, pgs 411--462 (1907)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;[12] J. Clerk Maxwell, "A dynamical theory of the electromagnetic field", Philos. Trans. Roy. Soc. 155, pgs 459--512 (1865).  Abstract: Proceedings of the Royal Society of London 13, pgs 531--536 (1864)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;[13] J. Clerk Maxwell, "A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism", Oxford Clarendon Press (1873)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;[14] A.A. Michelson and E.W. Morley, "On the Relative Motion of the Earth and the Luminiferous Ether", Amer. J. Sci. 34, pgs 333--345 (1887), Philos. Mag. 24, pgs 449--463 (1887)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;[15] O. Lodge, "Aberration Problems", Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. 184, pgs 729--804 (1893)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;[16] J. Larmor, "A Dynamical Theory of the Electric and Luminiferous Medium I", Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. 185, pgs 719--822 (1894)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;[17] H. Poincaré, "Cours de physique mathématique.  Electricité et optique.  La lumière et les théories électrodynamiques" (1900)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;[18] P. Drude, "Physik des Äthers auf elektromagnetischer Grundlage", Verlag F. Enke, Stuttgart (1894)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;[19] H. Lorentz, "Versuch einer Theorie der elektrischen und optischen Erscheinungen in bewegten Körpern", Leiden (1895)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;[20] A. Einstein, from "The Collected Papers, Vol 5, The Swiss Years: Correspondence, 1902--1914", English Translation, Doc 58.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;[21] P. Drude, "The theory of optics", translated from German by C.R. Mann and R.A. Millikan, New York, Longmans, Green, and Co. (1902)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;[22] M. Planck, "Uber irreversible Strahlungsvorgange", Verl. d. Kgl. Akad. d. Wiss. (1899)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;[23] H.A. Lorentz, "De l'Influence du Mouvement de la Terre sur les Phenomenes Lumineux", Arch. Neerl. 21, pg 103 (1887)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;[24] H.A. Lorentz, "On the Reflection of Light by Moving Bodies", Versl. Kon. Akad. Wetensch Amsterdam I, 74 (1892)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;[25] H.A. Lorentz, "Versuch einer Theorie der elektrischen und optischen Erscheinungen in bewegten Körpern", Leiden (1895)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;[26] H. A. Lorentz, "Théorie simplifiée des phenomènes electriques et optiques dans des corps en mouvement", Proc. Roy. Acad. Amsterdam I 427 (1899)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;[27] H.A. Lorentz, "Maxwells elektromagnetische Theorie" Encyclopädie der Mathematischen Wissenschaften.  Leipzig, Teubner (1903)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;[28] M. Abraham, "Prinzipien der Dynamik des Elektrons", Annalen der Physik 10, pgs 105--179 (1903)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;[29] e.g. J.J. Thomson and G.F.C. Searle, "A Determination of `v', the Ratio of the Electromagnetic Unit of Electricity to the Electrostatic Unit", Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. 181, pg 583 (1890), M. Hurmuzescu, "Nouvelle determination du rapport v entre les unites electrostatiques et electromagnetiques", Ann. de Chim. et de Phys., 7a serie T. X April 1897, pg 433. (1897)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;[30] J. Clerk Maxwell, "A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism", Oxford Clarendon Press, Vol II; Chapter 23, section 849 (1873)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;[31] K.F. Gauss, "Zur mathematischen Theorie der elektrodynamischen Wirkung" (1835), in "Werke", Göttingen 1867; Vol. V, pg 602&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;[32] W. Weber, "Elektrodynamische Maassbestimmingen uber ein allgemeines Grundgesetz der elektrischen Wirkung", Abh. Leibnizens Ges., Leipzig (1846)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;[33] G. Kirchhoff, "Ueber die Bewegung der Elektricität in Leitern" Ann. Phys. Chem. 102, 529--544 (1857)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;[34] G.F.B. Riemann, "Ein Beitrag zur Elektrodynamik", Annalen der Physik und Chemie, pg 131 (1867)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;[35] G. Kirchhoff, "Zur Theorie der Entladung einer Leydener Flasche", Pogg. Ann. 121 (1864)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;[36] J. Hermann, "Phoronomia", Amsterdam, Wetsten, (1716)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;[37] J. d'Alembert, "Recherches sur les cordes vibrantes", L’Académie Royal des Sciences (1747)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;[38] L. Euler, "De La Propagation Du Son" Memoires de l'acadamie des sciences de Berlin [15] (1759), 1766, pgs 185--209, in "Opera physica miscellanea epistolae.  Volumen primum", pg 432&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;[39] L. Euler, "Eclaircissemens Plus Detailles Sur La Generation et La Propagation Du Son Et Sur La Formation De L'Echo", "Memoires de l'acadamie des sciences de Berlin" [21] (1765), 1767, pgs 335--363 in "Opera physica miscellanea epistolae.  Volumen primum", pg 540&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;[40] J.W. Strutt, "Theory of Sound" Vol 1, pg 251, McMillan and Co. (1877)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;[41] H.A. Lorentz, "Stokes' Theory of Aberration in the Supposition of a Variable Density of the Aether", Proc. Roy. Acad. Amsterdam I, pg 443 (1899)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;[42] A. Einstein, "The Collected Papers, Vol 5, The Swiss Years: Correspondence, 1902--1914", English Translation, Doc 86 (1907)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;[43] W. Voigt, "Ueber das Doppler'sche Princip", Goett. Nachr. 2, pg 41 (1887)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;[44] E. Cohn, "Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Systeme. II", Sitzungsberichte der Königlich Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, der physikalisch-mathematischen Classe (1904)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;[45] M. Brillouin, "Le mouvement de la Terre et la vitesse de la lumière", comptes rendu 140, pg 1674 (1905)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;[46] G. Herglotz, "Zur Elektronentheorie", Nachrichten von der Gesellschaft 6, pg 357 (1903)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;[47] F. Himstedt, "Ueber die Schwingungen eines Magneten unter dem dämpfenden Einfluß einer Kupferkugel", Nachrichten von der Gesellschaft 11, pg 308 (1875)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;[48] H. Helmholtz, Berlin: Verl. d. Kgl. Akad. d. Wiss. (1892)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;[49] H. Hertz, "Electric Waves", Macmillan (1893)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Fonte: &lt;a href="http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/Relativity/SpeedOfLight/c.html"&gt;&lt;span style="font-size:100%;"&gt;&lt;em&gt;Usenet Physics FAQ&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/3713351170951673128-1822947165812478184?l=www.fisica.net%2Fblog%2Findex.htm' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3713351170951673128/1822947165812478184/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='https://www.blogger.com/comment.g?blogID=3713351170951673128&amp;postID=1822947165812478184' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3713351170951673128/posts/default/1822947165812478184'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3713351170951673128/posts/default/1822947165812478184'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://www.fisica.net/blog/2009/04/why-is-c-symbol-for-speed-of-light.html' title='Why is c the symbol for the speed of light?'/><author><name>Alberto Ricardo Präss</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/00494192447938250801</uri><email>albertoprass@gmail.com</email><gd:extendedProperty xmlns:gd='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005' name='OpenSocialUserId' value='08794662322081882193'/></author><thr:total xmlns:thr='http://purl.org/syndication/thread/1.0'>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3713351170951673128.post-8241834526700170455</id><published>2009-04-02T09:12:00.000-07:00</published><updated>2009-04-02T09:17:28.374-07:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='físicos'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='mecânica quântica'/><title type='text'>Beautifully strange - The Strangest Man: The Hidden Life of Paul Dirac, Quantum Genius</title><content type='html'>&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;The list of famous Bristolians is an illustrious one. The Victorian engineer Isambard Kingdom Brunel, for example, is recognized everywhere in Bristol for his many iconic structures, even though he was not born, bred or even resident in the city. Another well-known son of the city is the Hollywood legend Cary Grant, born as Archie Leach in the suburb of Horfield and now commemorated with a striking bronze statue outside Bristol’s hands-on science museum. The physicist Paul Dirac actually went to the same elementary school as Grant/ Leach, and the abstract sculpture dedicated to him stands just a stone’s throw away from Grant’s bronze likeness. Dirac also has a building named after him: Dirac House, the headquarters of IOP Publishing (which publishes Physics World).&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Yet in spite of these efforts to publicize Dirac’s many contributions to science, his city of birth and (until recently) the school where he was educated seemed almost unaware that in Dirac, Bristol produced one of the great minds of the last century, and arguably the greatest British physicist since Isaac Newton. Part of this lack of knowledge among both Bristolians and the general public is Dirac’s legendary reticence, literal-mindedness and almost total inability to communicate with anyone — except, possibly, his immediate family.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;All of this makes Dirac a very difficult subject for the sort of sympathetic biography that Graham Farmelo has produced in The Strangest Man: The Hidden Life of Paul Dirac, Quantum Genius. The book represents years of careful research and conversations with family and friends who knew Dirac and his work. In it, Farmelo, a science communicator and senior research fellow at the London Science Museum, describes the life and work of this profoundly brilliant man, exploring the origins of his near-pathological reticence and in the last chapter proposing a possible explanation. I doubt whether a better biography will appear in most of our lifetimes.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Dirac’s parents Charles and Florence were married in 1899 and lived for a time at 42 Cotham Road, probably in rented rooms, where Dirac’s older brother Felix was born. Shortly afterwards, Charles bought a small terraced house in Monk Road and Paul Adrien Maurice Dirac, the second son, was born in 1902. His sister Betty was born in 1906, so Flo certainly had her hands full with a young family and the ever-increasing and apparently irrational demands of her husband.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;These demands included Charles’ insistence that only French be spoken at the family dining table. As a result, Flo, Felix and Betty ate in the kitchen, while Paul — whose French was just passable — was allowed to sit with his Swiss-born father. In later life, Dirac acknowledged that his difficulty in communicating with others may have stemmed from this period, poignantly explaining to Kurt Hofer — an Austrian- born cell biologist who became a close friend — that “since I found that I couldn’t express myself in French, it was better for me to stay silent than to talk in English”.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Time and again, Farmelo returns to the difficult personal relations that plagued Dirac’s family. Although in today’s parlance the Diracs were upwardly mobile — they soon moved to a larger semi-detached house in Julius Road, a more salubrious part of Bristol — Charles was also a serial tax evader. His crimes only came to light after his death, however, leaving Flo with an unwelcome tax bill. At one stage in the relationship she appears to have sought separation from her husband due to suggestions that he was having an extramarital affair, and their oldest child Felix committed suicide when Dirac was 23. But despite all of these traumas, Dirac is said to have wept only once in his life: in 1955, when he heard of the death of his hero, Einstein.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Given this background, it is hardly surprising that in his later life it was only with some unhappiness and after pleading from his mother that Dirac could be persuaded to visit Bristol. Instead, St John’s College, Cambridge, became the place he regarded as his true home. While there, Dirac made his most important breakthrough: he succeeded in welding together special relativity and quantum mechanics to produce what is often and rightly regarded as one of the great equations in physics. He became the Lucasian Professor of Mathematics there in 1932, and in 1933 his famous equation won him a Nobel prize (shared with Schrödinger) “for the discovery of new productive forms of atomic theory”.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;h1 style="font-weight: normal; text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-size:100%;"&gt;Master of the equation: Paul Dirac.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h1&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;   &lt;/div&gt;  &lt;div style="text-align: center;"&gt;&lt;img src="http://images.iop.org/objects/physicsweb/world/22/4/41/pic2.jpg" alt="" /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: center;"&gt;  Credit: Science Source/Science Photo Library  &lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The conclusions of the Dirac equation were highly controversial when they were first described in 1928, but in a curious way, the criticisms appeared to simply bounce off Dirac — a consequence, perhaps, of his deeply private personality. The idea of negative energy states and the consequent hole theory was finally resolved by the discovery of the positron in 1932. The equation also showed that spin was a natural consequence of relativity and quantum mechanics, and not simply an add-on to explain atomic spectra. Recognizing this, it is only just and fair that the unique characteristics of electrons that make such devices as transistors, mobile phones and solid-state lasers possible are known as Fermi–Dirac statistics.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Farmelo takes the reader through difficult physics in a masterly manner — a consequence, no doubt, of his vast experience in science communication. The author also describes some aspects of Dirac’s work of which even professional physicists may not be aware. For example, in 1933 Dirac started an experimental study with Peter Kapitza on the possibility of bending a beam of electrons with light. He also developed an experiment to separate isotopes — much to the approval of Ernest Rutherford, who thought that it “augurs well for theoretical physics that the Lucasian Professor is soiling his hands in the laboratory”. As a result, Dirac became peripherally involved in the Manhattan Project, performing theoretical investigations of the “separation power” of uranium-enriching devices, although he declined a fulltime position.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;Dirac’s life changed dramatically during a sabbatical at Princeton University in 1934 when he met Margit Wigner, a Hungarian divorcee and mother of two children, Gabriel and Judy. Margit, the sister of nuclear physicist Eugene Wigner, was known to friends and family as Manci. She was the opposite in nearly every sense to Dirac, but their affection turned to love and they were married in January 1937. Manci had to spend some time in Budapest after the honeymoon and as a result, Dirac penned “the first love letter I have ever written”. Until then, Dirac had replied to questions from Manci in tabular form!&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The marriage did experience some strains (often arising from Manci’s dislike of Cambridge), but Dirac was a loving husband and stepfather to Manci’s children and to the two daughters of the marriage, Mary and Monica. Within the family, Dirac appears to have been far more communicative than he was with outsiders. At the opening of Dirac House in 1997, I remember Monica describing how his scientific approach to vegetable gardening caused much amusement in the family, which Dirac took in good humour.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;One feels a sense of anticlimax as the book nears its end. Dirac fell out with the Cambridge hierarchy over what seems a rather trivial dispute about car parking, and by the mid- 1960s he spent most of the week working at home. Meanwhile, Manci had set her heart on escaping from Cambridge, and in 1971, having seen their children well settled (except for Dirac’s stepdaughter Judy, who had disappeared in 1968 and was by then presumed to be dead), the couple finally emigrated from the UK to Florida, where Dirac died in 1984.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Physicists remain divided over the legacy of Dirac’s later years. Was his opposition to the success of quantum electrodynamics justified on the grounds that the theory lacked beauty? Do monopoles really exist? Can his large-number hypothesis — which suggests that fundamental constants change with time — ever be reconciled with general relativity? But all physicists agree that the towering achievement of the Dirac equation will, as Farmelo makes clear, set Dirac apart and place him in a league with Newton and Einstein.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Perhaps the most controversial part of the book is its last chapter, in which Farmelo explores the possibility that Dirac’s pathological reticence was in fact undiagnosed autism or Asperger’s syndrome. Autism covers a wide spectrum of behaviour, and as the writer and doctor Milo Keynes points out in The Notes and Records of the Royal Society (2008 62 289), it has become something of a catch-all phrase for behaviour that departs significantly from the norm: “In the past 10 years it has been firmly claimed that Newton must have shown the development disorder of Asperger’s syndrome, a disorder that has been posthumously assigned to Michelangelo, Henry Cavendish, Albert Einstein, Marie Curie, Ludwig Wittgenstein and Paul Dirac.” Clearly, Dirac joins a long and distinguished list of retrospectively diagnosed luminaries.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;For what it is worth, my guess is that Dirac was by nature a shy individual and that this shyness was reinforced by a difficult early home environment. Farmelo is correctly very cautious in what he has written, and regardless of the conclusions he draws about Dirac’s personality, it is clear that writing about him has been a labour of love. I most warmly recommend this book both to professional physicists and to laypersons interested in fundamental physics, as well as to anyone who finds the interaction between personality and intellectual endeavour fascinating.&lt;br /&gt;About the author&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;FONTE: &lt;a href="http://physicsworld.com/cws/article/print/38471"&gt;PhysicsWorld&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Sir John Enderby is professor emeritus of physics at Bristol University and past president of the Institute of Physics&lt;br /&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/3713351170951673128-8241834526700170455?l=www.fisica.net%2Fblog%2Findex.htm' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3713351170951673128/8241834526700170455/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='https://www.blogger.com/comment.g?blogID=3713351170951673128&amp;postID=8241834526700170455' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3713351170951673128/posts/default/8241834526700170455'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3713351170951673128/posts/default/8241834526700170455'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://www.fisica.net/blog/2009/04/beautifully-strange-strangest-man.html' title='Beautifully strange - The Strangest Man: The Hidden Life of Paul Dirac, Quantum Genius'/><author><name>Alberto Ricardo Präss</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/00494192447938250801</uri><email>albertoprass@gmail.com</email><gd:extendedProperty xmlns:gd='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005' name='OpenSocialUserId' value='08794662322081882193'/></author><thr:total xmlns:thr='http://purl.org/syndication/thread/1.0'>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3713351170951673128.post-8326608543176534438</id><published>2009-02-19T19:04:00.000-08:00</published><updated>2009-02-19T19:08:42.902-08:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Obama'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='EUA'/><title type='text'>Big gains for physics as Obama signs stimulus bill</title><content type='html'>&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Science fared well in the $787bn package to stimulate the US economy that President Barack Obama signed into law today. The “recovery and reinvestment bill” includes $21.5bn for research and development (R&amp;amp;D), the bulk of which — some $18bn — will go directly to researchers. The remaining $3.5bn is allocated for facilities and equipment.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Politicians have been bickering over the bill since it was fist unveiled on 15 January. American legislation takes a circuitous course on its way to the President. Typically, the House of Representatives and the Senate approve different versions of a bill, and then appoint negotiators to agree on compromise legislation that both houses must approve again before sending to the President.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="font-weight: bold; text-align: center;"&gt;"These prudent investments lay the necessary foundation for long-term economic growth and prosperity for our country"&lt;br /&gt;Cherry Murray, American Physical Society&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The $838bn Senate bill on 10 February included significantly less funding for physical science than the $825bn House bill on 29 January. Even though the Senate bill may have higher priority, most of the cuts to the physical sciences were reversed in the final $787bn bill agreed on 14 February. Indeed, physicists have welcomed the $21.5bn for science, with more than $10 bn of it going to government agencies responsible for funding the physical sciences.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;NSF is a winner&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The National Science Foundation (NSF) will receive $3.0 bn in stimulus funding on top of its $6.0bn budget for 2009. This will include $1bn for research infrastructure and construction and $2 bn for “other research and related activities.”&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The DOE’s Office of Science, meanwhile, will get $1.6 bn in funding beyond its 2009 budget of $4.0 bn. Two other DOE programmes: energy efficiency and renewables, and fossil energy will receive $2.5 bn and $1.0 bn respectively, which is almost twice as much as their 2009 budget allocations of $1.2 bn and $576 m.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;With a budget of $737 m for this year, the National Institute of Standards and Technology will receive an extra $580 m, of which $360 m will go on building research facilities. NASA will receive an extra $1.1 bn beyond its current budget of $17.2 bn with $400 m going towards its science and exploration programme.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="font-weight: bold; text-align: center;"&gt;"The good news is that there is a lot of money for infrastructure. The big challenge is how to spend it"&lt;br /&gt; Kei Koizumi, American Association for the Advancement of Science&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;“The surprise is how much money there is for science in the final bill,” says Kei Koizumi, budget analyst at the American Association for the Advancement of Science. “The good news is that there is a lot of money for infrastructure. The big challenge is how to spend it.”&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;“These critical investments will not only benefit American science and innovation, but they will put thousands of Americans back to work through construction and manufacturing projects,” American Physical Society president Cherry Murray said in a statement. “Furthermore, these prudent investments lay the necessary foundation for long-term economic growth and prosperity for our country.”&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The fresh funding has implications for US science beyond the current financial year. It puts back on track the goal of doubling federal government support for physical science — an ambition of the America COMPETES Act of 2007 that had fallen behind schedule.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Further evidence of the Obama administration’s ambitions for science will become clear later this month, with the release of its revised budget for the 2009 financial year, which started on the 1st of October last year.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;FONTE: &lt;a href="http://physicsworld.com/cws/article/news/37822"&gt;Peter Gwynne is North America correspondent for Physics World&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/3713351170951673128-8326608543176534438?l=www.fisica.net%2Fblog%2Findex.htm' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3713351170951673128/8326608543176534438/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='https://www.blogger.com/comment.g?blogID=3713351170951673128&amp;postID=8326608543176534438' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3713351170951673128/posts/default/8326608543176534438'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3713351170951673128/posts/default/8326608543176534438'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://www.fisica.net/blog/2009/02/big-gains-for-physics-as-obama-signs.html' title='Big gains for physics as Obama signs stimulus bill'/><author><name>Alberto Ricardo Präss</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/00494192447938250801</uri><email>albertoprass@gmail.com</email><gd:extendedProperty xmlns:gd='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005' name='OpenSocialUserId' value='08794662322081882193'/></author><thr:total xmlns:thr='http://purl.org/syndication/thread/1.0'>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3713351170951673128.post-8442896608623392864</id><published>2009-02-18T23:54:00.000-08:00</published><updated>2009-02-18T23:55:57.184-08:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Relatividade Restrita'/><title type='text'>Esticando o tempo e voltando ao passado</title><content type='html'>&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Por Roberto Belisário&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Boa notícia para os atrasados e os apressados: é possível “dilatar” o tempo, de forma a transformar um dia em dez dias, e também viajar ao passado e depois voltar ao presente para contar a história!&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Não é ficção: trata-se de possibilidades teóricas previstas pela física moderna. A dilatação do tempo acontece corriqueiramente na física subatômica; viagens para o futuro acontecem de forma natural e automática em viagens aéreas, ainda que através de intervalos de tempo minúsculos. Viagens para o passado são ainda apenas previsões teóricas, mas há quem aposte que aparecerão espontaneamente casos microscópicos e raros de “máquinas do tempo” naturais dentro do LCH, um acelerador de partículas que entrará em operação em maio de 2008.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;É possível ousar mais e imaginar se, no futuro, não será possível implementar esses fenômenos em uma tecnologia cotidiana que ajude a diminuir um efeito nocivo que o próprio avanço tecnológico, indiretamente, produz: a falta de tempo, a cultura da pressa, o acúmulo de tarefas. Na verdade, a tecnologia está o tempo todo sendo usada para esse fim: máquinas para fazer serviços domésticos, computadores, automóveis e aviões, todas essas inovações têm a função principal de permitir concentrar mais tarefas em menos tempo e com menos esforço. Mas o que se pergunta aqui é se é possível usar os efeitos descritos anteriormente para manipular diretamente o tempo de modo a, ao invés de diminuir a demora das atividades humanas, “esticar” o próprio tempo, ou mesmo “andar para trás no tempo”, de modo a termos mais horas disponíveis para nossos caprichos.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;A resposta não é animadora: o uso prático de tais fenômenos na vida cotidiana requer quantidades tão grandes de energia e aglomerados de matéria tão densos – trilhões de vezes maior do que a das rochas mais duras – que é virtualmente impossível com a atual tecnologia à disposição. Mas nada impede que alguma idéia brilhante e nova possa eliminar algumas limitações, como tantas vezes já aconteceu. Algumas já foram imaginadas e aumentaram um pouco as possibilidades.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Como transformar um dia em duas semanas&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;A dilatação do tempo chega a ser banal: acontece naturalmente e de forma automática quando se compara o ritmo do “passar do tempo” para duas pessoas deslocando-se uma em relação à outra. Trata-se de um efeito previsto pela teoria da relatividade especial, em 1905, produzida por Albert Einstein, Henri Poincaré, Hendrik Lorentz e outros, e que substituiu a mecânica de Newton, inconteste pelos 300 anos anteriores. Até então, imaginava-se o tempo como uma entidade absoluta, cujo “fluir” seria o mesmo para todos os observadores. Algo bem diferente de outros conceitos que sabemos que dependem de um referencial, como a velocidade. A rigor, a especificação da velocidade só é completa quando se diz em relação a quê. Um carro pode estar a 100 km/h em relação à estrada; mas, em relação ao Sol, estará a 180 mil km/h, acompanhando o movimento de translação da Terra ao redor dele.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;O que a teoria da relatividade mostrou sobre o tempo foi que ele é tão dependente de um referencial quanto a velocidade. Se eu olho para o relógio de alguém deslocando-se em relação à mim, vejo-o andar mais lentamente que o meu; os seus batimentos cardíacos parecem (e estão) mais vagarosos; suas palavras chegam até mim mais espaçadas e sua voz mais grave, vejo-a envelhecer mais devagar e assim por diante.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Neste ponto, para os atrasados e apressados, há uma boa notícia e uma má. A má é que seria necessário que dois observadores se afastassem a 42% da velocidade da luz para produzir um atraso de apenas 10% no correr do tempo entre um e outro. Portanto, é muito difícil e caro produzir uma dilatação do tempo útil, que transforme horas em mais horas, de forma que eu não precisasse mais escrever este texto para amanhã, mas só para daqui a duas semanas. Além disso, trata-se de um efeito que acontece entre observadores. Se eu permaneço parado em relação ao editor desta revista, meu tempo flui necessariamente da mesma forma que o dele. A não ser que alguém tenha alguma idéia brilhante...&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Na verdade, alguém teve uma idéia brilhante: Einstein e o matemático francês Pierre Langevin. E esta é a “notícia boa” prometida acima. Trata-se de um efeito chamado “paradoxo dos gêmeos”; Einstein previu-o em 1905 e, em 1911, Langevin colocou-o nos termos dramáticos seguintes. Imaginemos dois irmãos gêmeos, Ulisses e Penélope, sendo que Ulisses realiza uma viagem espacial em alta velocidade e volta anos depois. Segundo a previsão da relatividade, durante a viagem, Penélope observaria daqui da Terra todos os fenômenos relacionados a Ulisses mais lentos que o normal, desde as batidas do seu coração até a velocidade do seu caminhar. E isso inclui o ritmo do seu envelhecimento. De forma que, quando Ulisses retornar à Terra, estará alguns dias mais novo que Penélope.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Esse efeito já foi demonstrado substituindo-se os gêmeos por relógios atômicos, que são relógios de altíssima precisão. Em 1971, os físicos J. C. Hafele e R. E. Keating sincronizaram dois desses relógios e embarcou-se um deles em um vôo comercial ao redor do mundo, enquanto o outro permaneceu no Observatório Naval dos Estados Unidos, em Washington. O experimento foi feito duas vezes, uma num vôo de oeste para leste e outra de leste para oeste. Na primeira, o relógio atrasou-se 59 bilionésimos de segundo (59 nanossegundos) e, na segunda, adiantou 273 nanossegundos. Os resultados foram compatíveis com as previsões das equações da relatividade.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Viagens ao futuro e ao passado&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;A idéia de Einstein e Langevin foi boa o suficiente para se poder observar a dilatação do tempo sem grande dificuldade com velocidades perfeitamente acessíveis e vencer completamente a limitação do referencial entre eu e meu editor. Mas ela não é boa o suficiente para resolver as urgências do dia-a-dia – a velocidade envolvida teria que ser colossal. Há, porém, projetos de naves espaciais que talvez possam alcançar tais velocidades acelerando constantemente durante um longo tempo – para isso, usam como fonte de energia os raios cósmicos, que existem em qualquer lugar do espaço.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Mas, se o problema é a velocidade, a teoria da relatividade geral, feita também por Einstein e por David Hilbert entre 1905 e 1916, sugere uma forma de dilatar o tempo com os dois observadores parados: com o auxílio de campos gravitacionais intensos. Pela teoria, um observador no espaço interestelar (praticamente sem gravidade) vê tudo o que acontece quando outro observador na superfície da Terra correr mais devagar, da mesma forma que no caso de observadores em movimento. O campo gravitacional tem um efeito sobre o tempo. Mas é necessário um campo muito intenso para produzir uma diferença sensível e, para produzi-lo, seria necessário dispor de um acúmulo de matéria muito grande. Em 1976, foi medida a dilatação do tempo gravitacional entre um relógio atômico na Terra e um outro em um foguete lançado a 10 mil quilômetros de altura pelo Observatório Astrofísico Smithsonian, em Cambridge, nos EUA. O resultado foi de 4,5 partes em 10 bilhões (um desvio de apenas 0,01% em relação à previsão da teoria). Para produzir uma diferença de 10%, um objeto do tamanho da Terra teria que ter 10 elevado à 26ª potência (“1” seguido de 26 zeros) vezes o peso do nosso planeta, o que significa uma densidade só superada por um buraco negro.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;E com relação à viagem no tempo? A coisa interessante com a idéia brilhante de Einstein e Langevin é que o paradoxo dos gêmeos não é apenas uma dilatação no tempo: é um deslocamento através do tempo. Podemos dizer que Ulisses, em seu périplo, viajou em direção ao futuro. Na verdade, sempre que alguém se desloca pelo espaço, desloca-se também no tempo, em relação a observadores que permanecem parados. Isso significa que estamos viajando para o futuro o tempo todo. O efeito é evidentemente diminuto demais em situações cotidianas – mas existe.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Já a volta ao passado, que seria útil para as urgências da modernidade (se não cair em mãos erradas!), é de implementação muito mais difícil. Muitas vezes, tem-se a idéia popular de que uma viagem ao passado implicaria em uma velocidade superior à da luz. Não é verdade: pode-se fazer tais viagens sem ultrapassá-la. O que se precisa nesse caso, segundo a relatividade geral, é de um campo gravitacional de formato muito exótico – o que implica em uma porção de matéria com formato igualmente exótico e extremamente densa. Esse campo produziria uma espécie de “túnel” no espaço-tempo chamado “buraco de verme” ou “buraco de minhoca”. Ele permitiria deslocamentos em grandes distâncias e/ou através do tempo. Seriam necessárias também enormes quantidades de energia para impedir que esse túnel colapsasse e se fechasse quase instantaneamente. Foi esse efeito que inspirou a “velocidade warp” da série Jornada nas Estrelas e tantos outros saltos espaciais e temporais em filmes de ficção científica.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Se assim aconteceu, assim acontecerá&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Além disso, a teoria aparentemente não prevê a possibilidade de mudar o passado. Não seria possível, por exemplo, um homem voltar algumas décadas e matar a própria mãe antes de ele próprio nascer, pois esse filho não só estaria alterando um evento que já aconteceu (seu nascimento), como também impossibilitando a própria alteração. Mas as equações não impedem que essa pessoa volte no tempo e ajude sua mãe a conhecer seu pai, de modo que o nascimento ocorra. Tem-se aqui uma típica situação circular no tempo (tecnicamente, chamada “curva tipo tempo fechada” ou CTC), mas que quase não apresenta contradições lógicas (“quase” porque em algumas situações parece ser possível produzir informação a partir do nada). A ficção científica também explorou casos semelhantes, como no filme O Exterminador do Futuro, de 1984, e na sua continuação, de 1991, dirigidos por James Cameron.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;De qualquer forma, “buracos de minhoca” podem ser, teoricamente, produzidos em condições extremamente energéticas, como as que acontecem nas colisões subatômicas em aceleradores de partículas. Há cientistas que acreditam que eles poderão aparecer, ainda que raramente e microscópicos, no acelerador LHC, que está sendo construído no Centro Europeu de Pesquisas (CERN), perto Genebra, na fronteira entre França e Suíça. Tais buracos de minhoca, porém, seriam demasiadamente pequenos, da ordem de um “comprimento de Planck” (ou seja, de um centésimo de quintilionésimo do diâmetro de um próton). Além disso para transformar um deles em uma máquina do tempo boa para seres humanos, seria preciso colocar uma de suas pontas em um campo gravitacional extremamente intenso, como o de uma estrela de nêutrons – e aí volta o problema de se arrumar uma porção de matéria extremamente densa.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Nada impede, porém, que alguma outra idéia brilhante e nova possa contornar algumas dessas limitações e permitir a produção de algum aparelho capaz de distorcer o tempo de forma a transformar 50 minutos em 60 minutos. Mas não terá essa possibilidade o mesmo destino dos outros “sucessos” da tecnologia no aumento do tempo livre das pessoas? Afinal, mesmo com todas essas máquinas, continuamos com falta de tempo! As pessoas continuam correndo, executivos trabalham com laptops em viagens à noite, empresários bem-sucedidos ficam em atividade 14 horas por dia. Se tivéssemos um dia de 48 horas, provavelmente a jornada de trabalho pularia para 32 horas diárias... O que pode melhorar o problema de gerenciamento do tempo não são novas inovações tecnológicas, mas uma mudança de atitude para com o trabalho e a vida.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Ao leitor interessado, o livro A evolução da física, escrito pelo próprio Einstein e por Leopold Infeld, explica as teorias da relatividade especial e geral de forma bastante compreensível para não-físicos. Uma quantidade de experimentos possíveis sobre relatividade especial utilizando material caseiro aparece no site da Feira de Ciências, de Luiz Ferraz Netto. Um especial sobre o tempo, incluindo artigos sobre física – e um de Paul Davies sobre como construir uma máquina do tempo –, apareceu na Scientific American Brasil de outubro de 2002, que foi republicada neste mês de outubro de 2007. Uma abordagem sobre viagens no tempo mais extensa e acessível a não-fisicos está no livro Máquina do tempo – um olhar científico, do físico brasileiro Mário Novello.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Fonte:  &lt;a href="http://www.comciencia.br/comciencia/handler.php?section=8&amp;amp;edicao=30&amp;amp;id=351"&gt;Roberto Belisário é doutor em física, professor de eletrônica digital e física nas Faculdades Integradas Pedro Leopoldo (MG). &lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/3713351170951673128-8442896608623392864?l=www.fisica.net%2Fblog%2Findex.htm' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3713351170951673128/8442896608623392864/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='https://www.blogger.com/comment.g?blogID=3713351170951673128&amp;postID=8442896608623392864' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3713351170951673128/posts/default/8442896608623392864'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3713351170951673128/posts/default/8442896608623392864'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://www.fisica.net/blog/2009/02/esticando-o-tempo-e-voltando-ao-passado.html' title='Esticando o tempo e voltando ao passado'/><author><name>Alberto Ricardo Präss</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/00494192447938250801</uri><email>albertoprass@gmail.com</email><gd:extendedProperty xmlns:gd='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005' name='OpenSocialUserId' value='08794662322081882193'/></author><thr:total xmlns:thr='http://purl.org/syndication/thread/1.0'>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3713351170951673128.post-8560790461241708219</id><published>2009-02-12T21:05:00.000-08:00</published><updated>2009-02-12T21:09:33.268-08:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Teletransporte'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen'/><title type='text'>Tuning up for teleportation</title><content type='html'>&lt;div class="articleThumbnailCentre"&gt;&lt;a title="Entangled h-bar" href="http://physicsworld.com/cws/article/news/37770/1/hbar"&gt;&lt;img src="http://images.iop.org/objects/physicsweb/news/thumb/13/2/13/hbar.jpg" title="Entangled h-bar" alt="Entangled h-bar" /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;H-bars&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;A new technique for controlling the speed of “teleportation” in quantum systems has been created by physicists in the US and the UK. The researchers have demonstrated a way of “tuning” beams of light to distribute quantum information to specific points in space and time. Manipulating and storing data in this way is an important step towards developing new communication devices and eventually a quantum computer, say the researchers. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;In quantum teleportation, the sender (Alice) instantaneously transfers the quantum state of a particle to a receiver (Bob). In 1997 physicists captured public attention by teleporting quantum states between “entangled” photons for the first time. Entanglement is a feature of quantum mechanics that allows particles with two distinct quantum states to share a much closer relationship than classical physics allows. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt; Over the intervening 12 years teleportation has been demonstrated over increasing distances and between larger particles. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt; Now, &lt;a href="http://www.nist.gov/cgi-bin/wwwph/cso.nist.gov?Query=Alberto%20Marino"&gt;Alberto Marino&lt;/a&gt; and colleagues have addressed a different challenge of quantum computing – the need to control the flow of quantum information. In the experiment, two beams of light were “entangled” then slowed down in a controlled manner as they passed through a cloud of hot rubidium vapour (&lt;a href="http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v457/n7231/abs/nature07751.html"&gt;&lt;i&gt;Nature&lt;/i&gt;:2009.10.1038&lt;/a&gt;).  &lt;/p&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt; “In classic computing, information needs to arrive at the processor just at the right time. In quantum computing, exactly the same is true,” says Marino, a quantum-information researcher at the University of Maryland. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;h3 style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Harnessing the random&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Until now researchers have sought to develop quantum memory for long-term data storage. Unfortunately, these systems have been highly inefficient, losing at least 80 % of the data. By slowing the speed of quantum data flow, Marino and colleagues have created a short-term memory device that is, according to the researchers, significantly more reliable. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt; Firstly the team split a laser beam into two before firing the it at a cloud of hot rubidium gas. Rubidium atoms have just one loosely bound electron in the outer shell, leading to a gas that is highly nonlinear in the way it interacts with light. Within the gas the incoming laser beams become entangled in a process known as “four-wave mixing”. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt; Quantum information is then carried in the form of fluctuations in the phase and intensity of the beams. Initially, the information travels at the speed of light but is then slowed in a controlled way in the atomic vapour. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt; “This type of delay will be essential for the realization of quantum networks,” says  &lt;a href="http://www.acqao.org/people/Hans_Bachor.html"&gt;Hans-Albert Bachor&lt;/a&gt;, a quantum-computing researcher at the Australian National University.   &lt;/p&gt;&lt;h3 style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Applications?&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt; Using this mechanism, detection of quantum information was delayed for up to 27 nanoseconds. “Our quantum ‘images’ are the equivalent of the data buses in digital computers,” says Marino. The reason this delay could not be even longer is that the longer data are stored, the more noise is introduced. “Our next challenge is to preserve the quantum correlations while maintaining their quality,” said &lt;a href="http://www.jqi.umd.edu/people/postdocs/index.html"&gt;Vincent Boyer&lt;/a&gt;, also at the University of Maryland. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt; In Bachor's opinion, it is too early to consider applications for this system, but this is "limited only by our imagination”.  &lt;/p&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;  “Short term applications might include quantum sensors; these could work with only short fractional delays,” said &lt;a href="http://faculty.washington.edu/blinov/research.html"&gt;Boris Blinov&lt;/a&gt;, a quantum systems researcher at the University of Washington.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;          &lt;/div&gt;&lt;h3 style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;   &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Fonte: &lt;a href="http://physicsworld.com/cws/article/news/37770"&gt;James Dacey is a reporter for &lt;cite&gt;physicsworld.com&lt;/cite&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/3713351170951673128-8560790461241708219?l=www.fisica.net%2Fblog%2Findex.htm' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3713351170951673128/8560790461241708219/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='https://www.blogger.com/comment.g?blogID=3713351170951673128&amp;postID=8560790461241708219' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3713351170951673128/posts/default/8560790461241708219'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3713351170951673128/posts/default/8560790461241708219'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://www.fisica.net/blog/2009/02/tuning-up-for-teleportation.html' title='Tuning up for teleportation'/><author><name>Alberto Ricardo Präss</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/00494192447938250801</uri><email>albertoprass@gmail.com</email><gd:extendedProperty xmlns:gd='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005' name='OpenSocialUserId' value='08794662322081882193'/></author><thr:total xmlns:thr='http://purl.org/syndication/thread/1.0'>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3713351170951673128.post-2116288006047865021</id><published>2009-02-03T19:19:00.000-08:00</published><updated>2009-02-03T19:22:41.279-08:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Wireless'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Tecnologia'/><title type='text'>Electricity unplugged</title><content type='html'>&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;In the near future, wireless electricity could replace the ubiquitous power cable. Aristeidis Karalis looks at a revolutionary new way of transmitting power without wires&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The judge was driving back late one cold winter night. Entering the garage, the battery-charging indicator in his wirelessly powered electric car came on. “Home at last,” crossed his mind. He swiped his personal smartcard on the front-door detector to be let in. He heard a “charging” beep from his mobile phone. The blinking cursor on the half-finished e-mail on the laptop had been waiting all day on the side table. He picked the computer up and walked towards his desk. “Good evening, your honour. Your wirelessly heated robe,” said the butler-robot as it approached from the kitchen. Putting on the electric garment, he sat on the medical desk chair. His artificial heart was now beating faster.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Science fiction usually expresses society’s impeding desires and sense of anticipation for certain technological miracles to happen. A society without power cables is pretty much a given in most science fiction. Indeed, today we do live in the “wireless age”, in which the air that we breathe probably contains more information than oxygen. However, this is also an age where mobile phones, MP3 players, laptop computers and domestic robots exist alongside old-fashioned power wires and bulky batteries. Unlike information, electrical energy is still physically confined to these borderline anachronistic appliances. Overcoming these last obstacles would finally make this a truly wireless world. Science? Yes. Fiction? Not anymore.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;It all started a few years ago when Marin Soljačić, a physicist at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in the US, was driving back home one cold winter night and he heard an unfriendly beep from his mobile phone. It was the annoying reminder that the battery was running out, once again. It then suddenly occurred to Soljačić how great it would be if the mobile phone could take care of its own charging. The next morning, he returned to his office at the MIT determined to find a solution to the problem.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;An exhaustive literature search soon revealed that wireless transmission of power was not an original idea. Back in the 1890s Nikola Tesla, one of great pioneers of electromagnetism, was the first to envisage that electricity, then a newly found form of energy, should be delivered to every house, in every city, in every country on the planet. However, Tesla did not foresee that people would be willing to drag wires around the entire globe to use electricity. Instead, he dreamed of a way of transferring electrical energy wirelessly over long distances. This would be achieved using big, coupled electromagnetic resonators able to generate very large electric fields, which were meant to propagate most likely either via conduction through the ionosphere (presumably including gigantic sparks) or through the Earth (possibly via intermediate coupling to the Earth’s charge resonances, so-called Schumann resonances). The epitome of Tesla’s efforts to achieve his goal was Wardenclyffe Tower, a 57 m high structure in Long Island that was meant to deliver electricity to the entire planet. The construction was interrupted in about 1905, not because the method was considered impractical or dangerous, but because the funder, the famed financier and banker J P Morgan, was concerned that there would be no way to bill remote electricity users. Nowadays, more than a century after Tesla, electricity reaches nearly every home through a global electrical grid. Nevertheless, J P Morgan’s objections meant a premature end to the first attempt at wireless electricity.&lt;br /&gt;No wires attached&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Today, we know of a variety of methods to transmit power without wires. The simplest example is electromagnetic radiation, such as radio waves. Omni-directional radiative antennas are one of the most widely used technologies, which are utilized in the provision of wireless Internet services, mobile telecoms, and radio and TV broadcasting. These antennas typically operate in the high-MHz/low-GHz frequency regimes. Even though such antennas are highly robust and suitable for use with mobile receivers, since they can operate in all directions and do not require a line of sight to the receiver, they are highly inefficient. Only a tiny portion of the radiated power in the direction of the receiver is actually picked up, since the vast majority of the radiation is lost in all the other directions. The use of a highly directional antenna, such as a microwave-beam antenna, in principle solves this problem and achieves a high efficiency in power transmission even over long distances (i.e. kilometres). On the other hand, this type of antenna does require an uninterrupted line of sight, which in itself requires a complicated device-tracking and beam-steering mechanism. Also, high-power focused beams may constitute a safety hazard.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;An alternative approach to antennas is the use of an inductive transformer, a device commonly used in power circuits and electromechanical motors (for example electrical toothbrushes and chargers). A transformer typically operates up to mid-kHz frequencies. It essentially transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another via induction: the time-varying magnetic flux produced by a primary coil crosses a secondary coil and induces in it a voltage. The primary and the secondary coils are not physically connected, hence the method is wireless. Transformers can be very efficient but the distance between the coils must be very small (typically a few millimetres). For distances a few times the size of the coils, the efficiency drops significantly.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Part of the underlying physics for most of the existing methods for the wireless transfer of electricity is the fundamental principle of resonance: the property of certain physical systems to oscillate with maximum amplitudes at certain frequencies. It follows that, for any type of excitation (mechanical, acoustic, electromagnetic, nuclear) with a given frequency, a receiver will pick up the transmitted energy efficiently only when designed to resonate at the excitation frequency. Only then do successive excitations after each oscillation period add coherently in phase and lead to a build up of energy within the receiver.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;To illustrate, consider 100 glasses filled with wine at different levels so that they support acoustic resonances at different frequencies. Now let an electric-guitar player produce and sustain a very well-defined note. Only one of the glasses, the one resonant with the frequency of this note, will respond to the excitation, to the extent that it may even break, while the rest will remain unaffected. Similarly, we tune the electromagnetic antenna of a radio to be resonant with the frequency of the station we want to listen to. Many transformers used in power circuitry and elsewhere are also designed to employ resonance to enhance the power transmission.&lt;br /&gt;Cutting the cord at MIT&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Since these days electricity is delivered to pretty much every single house in the world, it is not necessary anymore to transmit electricity over large distances à la Wardenclyffe Tower. Transmitting electricity within a room, namely over distances a few times greater than the size of the receiving devices themselves (what engineers define as mid-range distances), is sufficient for most modern applications. Achieving this goal with satisfactory efficiency, safety and low cost remains an unsolved problem. That was the challenge for Soljačić and his collaborators at the MIT labs: John Joannopoulos, Peter Fisher, Andre Kurs, Robert Moffatt and me.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;h1&gt;Power up&lt;/h1&gt;   &lt;p&gt;  &lt;img src="http://images.iop.org/objects/physicsweb/world/22/2/39/PWele2_02-09.jpg" alt="" /&gt;&lt;br /&gt; The “quality factor”, &lt;i&gt;Q&lt;/i&gt;, of a coil (see main text for details) that can be used for wireless power transmission at frequencies of about 10&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt; Hz when &lt;i&gt;Q&lt;/i&gt; is at its peak, which is when the combined losses due to resistive absorption (green) and radiation (blue) are slowest.  &lt;/p&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Revisiting the fundamental principle of resonance, we posed the question of which physical conditions maximize the efficiency of energy transfer between two resonant objects. The energy of any resonator naturally decays due to intrinsic energy-loss mechanisms (friction for mechanical resonances, radiation and resistive absorption for electromagnetic resonances, collisions with phonons and spontaneous emission for atomic resonances). Losses are typically quantified by the number of oscillation periods that it takes for the energy to decay by a factor of 2.72. This number, represented by the “quality factor” Q, is an intrinsic property of resonators and depends on the strength of the loss mechanisms. (As a simple analogue, water inside a bucket with a hole will leak out at a rate that depends on the size of the hole.)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;If two equal resonators exchange energy, it also takes a characteristic number of oscillation periods to transfer the energy from resonator A to resonator B, which is proportional to a constant that quantifies the strength of the coupling between the resonators, Qk. (If water is pumped from one bucket to another via a hose, then the transfer time depends on the strength of the pump.) Clearly, for energy transfer to be efficient, Q needs to be much larger than Qk, i.e. the rate at which energy is being transferred needs to far exceed the rate at which energy is being lost. (Water will be efficiently transferred between two leaking buckets if the pump is faster then the leaks from the holes.) The efficiency of the system can then be characterized by Q/Qk. The transfer of energy is efficient only when this ratio is larger than one, the so-called strong-coupling regime.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;For our wireless method, we used one of the most basic electric circuits as a resonator: the LC circuit. This circuit is an electromagnetic resonant circuit that consists of an inductor (L), made by a wire coil, and a capacitor (C). Two such wire coils transfer energy via induction, like a transformer device, and the Qk clearly depends on the distance between the coils. For mid-range distances and long enough wavelengths, the spatial-decay rate of the magnetic field means that Qk is roughly proportional to the cube of the ratio of the distance between the coils, D, and the size of each coil, d, while showing little dependency on the frequency and the geometry of the coils. This means that, for mid-range distances, Qk will be large and the coupling very weak.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;As a result, the best way to maximize the efficiency is to engineer the resonators to have the highest possible value of Q (try to seal the holes in the buckets). The resonance frequency of each coil (which has to be the same for both coils) can be tuned by varying the capacitance (and tuning a circuit element is exactly what the knob is tuning in a radio antenna). Q varies with the tuneable frequency, and this variation is shown in the figure above for a coil with a diameter of 60 cm made of copper pipe with a radius of 2 cm. It can be seen that, for high-MHz frequencies, the resonator loses energy fast (low Q, often even less than 10) due to radiation. This is exactly how an antenna is designed to work. Similarly, for mid-kHz frequencies, it loses energy fast (Q less than 100) via resistive absorption, which is typical of transformers. This explains why both omni-directional antennas and transformers fail to be efficient power transmitters at mid-range distances: the transfer-time measure Qk is large because of D, and Q is small. On the other hand, in the intermediate, low-MHz regime, much longer loss-times are observed, with Q often larger than 1000. That was our chosen regime.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Based on our theory, we started experiments in late 2006. The main challenges consisted of designing a driving circuit that would operate in our desired low-MHz regime and constructing coils that would resonate with a high enough value of Q. After a trial-and-error phase, we realized that a simple coil design without a separate capacitor, but using the coil’s self-capacitance to achieve resonance, was the best option in terms of Q.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;We made two copper-pipe coils with 60 cm diameters and with five turns, such that they resonate at 10 MHz and have Q = 1000. A 60 W light bulb was our chosen device, since it operates at the tested frequencies (and what can be a clearer sign of the functionality of a system than the switch on of a light bulb?). We suspended the coils from the ceiling with fishing wire, at a distance of 2 m from each other, tuned them up, turned them on and…there was light. At an efficiency of 45%, this was, to our knowledge, the first-ever demonstration of midrange efficient wireless energy transfer.&lt;br /&gt;On the safe side&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The selective property of resonance means that almost all of the source power will be transmitted to the destined device and not to anywhere else. This is because any random object, including a biological organism, is almost always a non-resonant structure. Even if an object happens to be resonant, say a mobile-phone antenna, its resonance will be very different from the precise source-resonator frequency (just like those 99 wine glasses). Furthermore, even in the extremely unlikely case of it having the same resonance frequency, its Q value would be so low that no significant amount of power would be transmitted to it.&lt;br /&gt;                                                                                               &lt;h1&gt;Wireless innovators&lt;/h1&gt;   &lt;p&gt;  &lt;img src="http://images.iop.org/objects/physicsweb/world/22/2/39/PWele3_02-09.jpg" alt="" /&gt;&lt;br /&gt; Martin Soljačić (left), the current author (middle) and John Joannopoulos from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, along with a lab demonstration of their technology — used here to light a 60 W bulb. (Credit: Donna Coveney/MIT)  &lt;/p&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;In our long-wavelength regime of operation (30 m wavelength at 10 MHz compared with 60 cm coils), power is transmitted from one object to another by spreading away from the source resonator and then “focusing” back into the device resonator. In contrast to higher frequencies, where power would be radiated across as a focused beam with a much smaller cross-sectional area, the former mechanism implies that, in our system, the power density locally and thus the fields will be considerably smaller at all points, except perhaps those too close to the coils. Smaller fields obviously imply safer performance.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Furthermore, our wireless-electricity method uses magnetic, rather than electric, fields to transfer energy. From the point of view of magnetic fields, most poor conductors, like wood, bricks, plastics and people, look a lot like air. On the other hand, electric fields do pose health hazards, because they can interact with biological organisms. With our method, these electric fields are confined to the capacitor inside our resonator. This method is quite similar to induction hobs on cookers, whereby a hob may transmit kilowatts of power to a metallic pot via induction, but it is safe to touch with our non-conducting hands. Note also that even the “large” magnetic fields in our system actually have tiny strength, approximately 10–4 T near the coils for 60 W of transmitted power, about the order of the time-invariant magnetic field of the Earth. It is the high-Q resonance that magically converts this tiny field into considerable usable power.&lt;br /&gt;Wireless mobility&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Long-wavelength fields naturally wrap and redistribute themselves around random objects in their vicinity or those standing between the source and mobile receiver. Therefore, while a radiated beam would immediately be interrupted by obstacles, our method stays robust and does not require an uninterrupted line of sight to the source. Sources can be hidden under floors, behind walls or inside furniture, and the receiving devices do not find shade while roaming freely behind random objects or when integrated inside other systems.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The near field produced by a resonant source coil spreads out quite uniformly in all directions, in contrast to a directed radiation beam. Thus, appropriate placement of one or more device coils can guarantee omni-directional coverage with low system complexity and thus cost.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The response of the system to dynamic variations of its parameters due to variable interaction with its environment during motion can be as fast as within 0.1 ms, based on the available frequency bandwidth of the sharp MHz resonances. This is good enough for the changes associated with daily motion.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Ray Bradbury, the prolific science-fiction writer, once said that “Anything you dream is fiction, and anything you accomplish is science.” If our innovation is successfully commercialized, then the concept of a completely wireless world could soon leap from dream to widespread accomplishment. We will forget charging our mobile phones, laptops and other personal digital devices. The maze of cables behind every home or office apparatus will disappear. Cars will drive on electricity for much longer and more cheaply. Robots will completely forget about returning to their charging stations. Micro-robots will forever hide inside electronic chips. Battery-powered sensors buried underground will never die. And the story of the judge will soon belong to history.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;“Dad, I found a lamp in the basement, but it doesn’t work, see?” said the 10 year old, while ascending the stairs. “It does my son,” replied the judge, “but it connects to a wall plug and our new house does not have any of those.”&lt;br /&gt;About the author&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Aristeidis Karalis is at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in the US&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Fonte: &lt;a href="http://physicsworld.com/cws/article/print/37532"&gt;PhysicsWorld&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/3713351170951673128-2116288006047865021?l=www.fisica.net%2Fblog%2Findex.htm' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3713351170951673128/2116288006047865021/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='https://www.blogger.com/comment.g?blogID=3713351170951673128&amp;postID=2116288006047865021' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3713351170951673128/posts/default/2116288006047865021'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3713351170951673128/posts/default/2116288006047865021'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://www.fisica.net/blog/2009/02/electricity-unplugged.html' title='Electricity unplugged'/><author><name>Alberto Ricardo Präss</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/00494192447938250801</uri><email>albertoprass@gmail.com</email><gd:extendedProperty xmlns:gd='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005' name='OpenSocialUserId' value='08794662322081882193'/></author><thr:total xmlns:thr='http://purl.org/syndication/thread/1.0'>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3713351170951673128.post-3282175463293936207</id><published>2009-02-02T20:41:00.000-08:00</published><updated>2009-02-02T20:47:06.752-08:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Epistemologia'/><title type='text'>The greatest equations ever</title><content type='html'>Maxwell's equations of electromagnetism and the Euler equation top a poll to find the greatest equations of all time. Robert P Crease discusses the results of his reader survey&lt;div style="text-align: justify; font-family: verdana;"&gt;    &lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify; font-family: verdana;"&gt;  &lt;/div&gt;&lt;div  style="text-align: justify;font-family:verdana;" class="articleBody"&gt; &lt;p&gt;&lt;span style="font-size:100%;"&gt;Earlier this year I asked readers to send me their shortlists of great equations. I also asked them to explain why their nominations belonged on the list and why, if at all, the topic matters (&lt;i&gt;Physics World&lt;/i&gt; May p19).  &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div class="articleThumbnailLeft"&gt;&lt;span style="font-size:100%;"&gt;&lt;a title="James Clerk Maxwell" href="http://physicsworld.com/cws/article/print/20407/1/pwpov1_10-04"&gt;&lt;img src="http://images.iop.org/objects/physicsweb/world/thumb/17/10/2/pwpov1_10-04.jpg" title="James Clerk Maxwell" alt="James Clerk Maxwell" /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;James Clerk Maxwell&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span style="font-size:100%;"&gt; I received about 120 responses -- including single candidates as well as lists -- proposing about 50 different equations. They ranged from obvious classics to "overlooked" candidates, personal favourites and equations invented by the respondents themselves. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span style="font-size:100%;"&gt; Several people inquired about the difference between formulae, theorems and equations -- and which I meant. Generally, I think of a formula as something that obeys the rules of a syntax. In this sense, &lt;i&gt;E = mc&lt;/i&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; is a formula, but so is &lt;i&gt;E = mc&lt;/i&gt;&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;. A theorem, in contrast, is a conclusion derived from more basic principles -- Pythagoras's theorem being a good example. An equation proper is generally a formula that states observed facts and is thus empirically true. The equation that describes the Balmer series of lines in the visible spectrum is a good example, as are chemical equations that embody observations about reactions seen in a laboratory. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span style="font-size:100%;"&gt; However, these distinctions are not really so neat. Many classic physics equations --  including &lt;i&gt;E = mc&lt;/i&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; and Schrödinger's equation -- were not conclusions drawn from statements about observations. Rather, they were conclusions based on reasoning from other equations and information; they are therefore more like theorems. And theorems can be equation-like for their strong empirical content and value. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span style="font-size:100%;"&gt;It thus makes sense to classify both kinds as equations, which is exactly what respondent David Walton from the University of Manchester did. He distinguished between equations (such as &lt;i&gt;F = ma&lt;/i&gt;) that comprise axiomatic models that "define the interrelationships between various observables for all circumstances" and equations that are approximate models (such as Hooke's law), which define "the interrelationships between the various observables over a defined range and within a defined accuracy". I therefore interpreted the term "equation" loosely. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt; &lt;span style="font-size:100%;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;Simplicity&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span style="font-size:100%;"&gt;Respondents had many different criteria for greatness in equations. Half a dozen people were so impressed with simplicity that they proposed 1 + 1 = 2. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span style="font-size:100%;"&gt;"I know that other equations have done more, express greater power [and have a] broader understanding of the universe," wrote Richard Harrison from Calgary in Canada, "but there's something to be said for the beauty of the simplest things of their kind." He then recalled how 1 + 1 = 2 was the first equation he taught his son. "I remember [him] holding up the index finger of each hand as he learned the expression, and the moment of wonder when he saw that the two fingers, separated by his whole body, could be joined in a single concept in his mind." &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span style="font-size:100%;"&gt;Neil Blackie also voted for 1 + 1 = 2. "For this equation to come into being there had to be the invention of a method for representing a physical reality, quantities had to be given names and symbols," he argued. "There had to be a system to show how these quantities could be grouped together or taken apart. The writing down of this equation gave us the ability to present ideas, to discuss concepts, which led to an ever-expanding sphere of knowledge." &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span style="font-size:100%;"&gt; Other simple equations that were proposed included &lt;i&gt;v = H&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;d&lt;/i&gt;, which Edwin Hubble composed in 1929 to describe the fact that the galaxies are moving away from us at a speed, &lt;i&gt;v&lt;/i&gt;, that is proportional to their distance, &lt;i&gt;d&lt;/i&gt;, where &lt;i&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/i&gt; is the Hubble constant. Balagoj Petrusev, an undergraduate student at the Institute of Physics in Skopje, Macedonia, suggested the Hamiltonian variational principle in the form &lt;i&gt;δ&lt;b&gt;S&lt;/b&gt; = 0&lt;/i&gt;. A proper selection of the form of &lt;b&gt;S&lt;/b&gt;&lt;i&gt;Physics World&lt;/i&gt; last month (September p64).  articulates "a universal principle that stands true in classical mechanics, classical electrodynamics, relativistic mechanics, non-relativistic quantum mechanics and so on". In fact, Andy Hone from the University of Kent wrote a eulogy to this equation in &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span style="font-size:100%;"&gt; The unifying power of a great equation is not as simple a criterion as it sounds. A great equation does more than set out a fundamental property of the universe, delivering information like a signpost, but works hard to wrest something from nature. As Michael Berry from Bristol University once said of the Dirac equation for the electron: "Any great physical theory gives back more than is put into it, in the sense that as well as solving the problem that inspired its construction, it explains more and predicts new things" (&lt;i&gt;Physics World&lt;/i&gt; February 1998 p38). &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span style="font-size:100%;"&gt; Great equations change the way we perceive the world. They reorchestrate the world -- transforming and reintegrating our perception by redefining what belongs together with what. Light and waves. Energy and mass. Probability and position. And they do so in a way that often seems unexpected and even strange. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span style="font-size:100%;"&gt;For this reason, several respondents proposed equations that linked two or more disparate concepts, concrete and abstract things, the visible and the invisible. They included Boltzmann's equation &lt;i&gt;S = k&lt;/i&gt; In&lt;i&gt;W&lt;/i&gt;.  &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span style="font-size:100%;"&gt; It relates entropy, &lt;i&gt;S&lt;/i&gt;, which emerged as a concept during the development of thermodynamics early in the 19th century, and a purely abstract quantity, W, that emerged from the statistical treatment of systems with many degrees of freedom. Bragg's equation (&lt;i&gt;nλ = 2d&lt;/i&gt;sinϑ)wrote another respondent, "links diffraction spots (visible reality) with the underlying crystal structure (invisible reality) and can be easily visualized with a standard textbook picture." &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span style="font-size:100%;"&gt;  One of the most frequently mentioned equations was Euler's equation, e&lt;sup&gt;iπ&lt;/sup&gt; + 1 = 0. Respondents called it "the most profound mathematical statement ever written"; "uncanny and sublime"; "filled with cosmic beauty"; and "mind-blowing". Another asked: "What could be more mystical than an imaginary number interacting with real numbers to produce nothing?" The equation contains nine basic concepts of mathematics -- once and only once -- in a single expression. These are: e (the base of natural logarithms); the exponent operation;π; plus (or minus, depending on how you write it); multiplication; imaginary numbers; equals; one; and zero. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt; &lt;span style="font-size:100%;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;Practicality&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span style="font-size:100%;"&gt;Many respondents were impressed by equations that have a practical influence on human life. These included: the compound-interest equation, the implications of which from the Renaissance to the present are "obvious, staggering and unwelcome"; income-tax formulae; the simple ratio &lt;i&gt;a/b = c/d&lt;/i&gt;, which is basic to construction, surveying and so forth; simple electrical equations, such as &lt;i&gt;V = IR&lt;/i&gt;; basic mechanical equations, such as work done = force x distance; Shannon's capacity equation, which relates to the modern world through the Internet and digital communication; and, last but not least, Pythagoras's theorem. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span style="font-size:100%;"&gt;Roger Bailey nominated the "sunrise equation" cos(time) = -tan(lat) x tan(dec), which identifies the time of sunrise or sunset as a function of latitude and solar declination. This, he pointed out, is "fundamental to our sense of time" and it "fits on a T-shirt". Engineer John Wilcher suggested the ideal-gas law, &lt;i&gt;PV = nRT&lt;/i&gt;, pointing out that "the relation of pressure, volume and temperature is relevant to almost everything we do", including common but often overlooked uses such as car tyres, angioplasty procedures and oil drilling. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span style="font-size:100%;"&gt; Meanwhile, Iain Christison, an emeritus professor of animal agriculture at the University of Saskatchewan, Canada, suggested &lt;i&gt;E&lt;sub&gt;M&lt;/sub&gt; = H + P&lt;/i&gt; -- metabolized energy equals heat plus product. It describes the fact that "all of the useful energy consumed by animals, including people, is released as heat or stored as product". The equation, he added, "carries within it an intricate balance of cause and effect that influences all of us with every mouthful and with every step". &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt; &lt;span style="font-size:100%;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;Historical relevance&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span style="font-size:100%;"&gt;Some respondents proposed equations that played key roles in the history of science. For example, Alan Denham proposed the Balmer series 1/λ = R (1/&lt;i&gt;n&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; + 1/n&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/i&gt;). The long history of this equation stretches from Fraunhofer's studies of the spectrum of sunlight in 1814, to Kirchhoff's suggestion in 1859 that each atomic species has a unique spectrum, to Angstrom's publication of the wavelengths of a thousand Fraunhofer lines in 1868, to schoolteacher Johann Balmer, who in 1885 noticed that the frequencies of light emitted by hydrogen atoms were mathematically related. The equation's history was continued by Lyman's observations in the ultraviolet region and by others in the infrared, by Rydberg (who gave his name to the constant &lt;i&gt;R&lt;/i&gt; in the equation), and by Bohr, whose work in 1913 explained the equation. "As soon as I saw Balmer's formula the whole thing was immediately clear to me," Bohr once said. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div class="articleThumbnailRight"&gt;&lt;span style="font-size:100%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;img src="http://images.iop.org/objects/physicsweb/world/17/10/2/pwpov2_10-04.jpg" alt="" /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;These equations are listed in order of the number of people who proposed them. The first two received about 20 mentions each out of a total of about 120; the rest received between two and 10 each. Equations are given, where appropriate, in their most common form.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span style="font-size:100%;"&gt;"Thus this century-long story," Denham wrote, "involving the theoretical and practical investigation of science by some of its most distinguished practitioners, would be incomplete without giving due honour to the contribution of a secondary-schoolmaster who spotted that the published scientific data conformed to a pattern that none of the scientists of his day were aware of." &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt; &lt;span style="font-size:100%;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;Maxwell's equations&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span style="font-size:100%;"&gt;The responses suggested that there is no single criterion for greatness, and that a truly great equation ranks high in each of the above criteria. However, most votes were given to Euler's equation and to Maxwell's equations, which describe how an electromagnetic field varies in space and time. Although Maxwell's equations are relatively simple, they daringly reorganize our perception of nature, unifying electricity and magnetism and linking geometry, topology and physics. They are essential to understanding the surrounding world. And as the first field equations, they not only showed scientists a new way of approaching physics but also took them on the first step towards a unification of the fundamental forces of nature. A firm called Ocean Optics in Florida even sells T-shirts with Maxwell's equations on. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span style="font-size:100%;"&gt;Tony Watkins recalled how he learned the equations during his second year as an undergraduate at Southampton University almost 20 years ago. "I still vividly remember the day I was introduced to Maxwell's equations in vector notation," he wrote. "That these four equations should describe so much was extraordinary...For the first time I understood what people meant when they talked about elegance and beauty in mathematics or physics. It was spine-tingling and a turning point in my undergraduate career. After a year of rapidly dwindling interest in physics (and rapidly decreasing results!), my passion was reignited by four lines of symbols." He even renamed his next bicycle Maxwell in honour of the great man, having previously ridden on his Carnot Cycle. Sadly for him, he never got round to learning tensors to see Maxwell's equations expressed even more simply. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt; &lt;span style="font-size:100%;"&gt;&lt;b&gt;The critical point&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span style="font-size:100%;"&gt;Nobody accepted my invitation to discuss why greatness in equations matters, which leaves me free to address the topic myself. Debating the issue has drawbacks, for it can foster the idea that equations are independent tools rather than embedded in networks of other equations, practices and information. Nevertheless, it helps us to recollect, among other things, what Richard Harrison called that "moment of wonder" that was apparent in his son's contemplation of 1 + 1 = 2. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span style="font-size:100%;"&gt;As adults, we lose that wonder. We come to think of equations as just another set of tools that lie about ready-at-hand in the world. We lose our appreciation for their origin, thinking that they are not really of human origin: on the eighth day, God created equations as the blueprint for His recent work. As Galileo wrote -- disingenuously, polemically -- the Book of Nature is written in mathematical symbols. That's untrue, of course. We write, and continually rewrite, the book of nature. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span style="font-size:100%;"&gt;As the philosopher Immanuel Kant once wrote: "When we discover that two or more heterogeneous empirical laws of nature can be unified under one principle that comprises them both, the discovery does give rise to a noticeable pleasure...even an admiration that does not cease when we have become fairly familiar with its object". This delight is more than having our expectations fulfilled or surprised, more than about the domination and control of nature, more than a biological product. The pleasure, Kant continued, is a feature of the exercise of the human intellect. "Even the commonest experience would be impossible without it," he wrote, which is why we "gradually come to mix it with mere cognition and no longer take any special notice of it." &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;&lt;span style="font-size:100%;"&gt;In reawakening that sense of wonder, debating what makes equations great therefore re-educates us about the fundamental nature of science, and knowledge, itself.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt; &lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify; font-family: verdana;"&gt;         &lt;/div&gt;&lt;h3  style="text-align: justify;font-family:verdana;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-size:100%;"&gt;About the author&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify; font-family: verdana;"&gt;   &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p  style="text-align: justify;font-family:verdana;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-size:100%;"&gt;&lt;a href="mailto:rcrease@notes.cc.sunysb.edu"&gt;Robert P Crease&lt;/a&gt; is in the Department of Philosophy, State University of New York at Stony Brook, and historian at the Brookhaven National Laboratory.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p  style="text-align: justify;font-family:verdana;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-size:100%;"&gt;Fonte: &lt;a href="http://physicsworld.com/cws/article/print/20407"&gt;PhysicsWorld&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p  style="text-align: justify;font-family:verdana;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-size:100%;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/3713351170951673128-3282175463293936207?l=www.fisica.net%2Fblog%2Findex.htm' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3713351170951673128/3282175463293936207/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='https://www.blogger.com/comment.g?blogID=3713351170951673128&amp;postID=3282175463293936207' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3713351170951673128/posts/default/3282175463293936207'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3713351170951673128/posts/default/3282175463293936207'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://www.fisica.net/blog/2009/02/greatest-equations-ever.html' title='The greatest equations ever'/><author><name>Alberto Ricardo Präss</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/00494192447938250801</uri><email>albertoprass@gmail.com</email><gd:extendedProperty xmlns:gd='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005' name='OpenSocialUserId' value='08794662322081882193'/></author><thr:total xmlns:thr='http://purl.org/syndication/thread/1.0'>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3713351170951673128.post-5716505266826466181</id><published>2009-02-02T20:38:00.000-08:00</published><updated>2009-02-02T21:06:24.342-08:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Epistemologia'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='físicos'/><title type='text'>Journeys to greatness</title><content type='html'>To practising physicists, the great equations of physics might seem obvious, logical and trivial. But to their discoverers, Robert P Crease argues, that was far from true&lt;br /&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt; Readers, I hope, will forgive me for a shameless bit of self-publicity about my latest book, &lt;cite&gt;The Great Equations: Breakthroughs in Science from Pythagoras to Heisenberg&lt;/cite&gt; (Norton). But then the book is partly yours too, inspired as it was by the responses of &lt;cite&gt;Physics World&lt;/cite&gt; readers to my request for suggestions of great equations (see &lt;a href="http://www.fisica.net/blog/2009/02/greatest-equations-ever.html"&gt;“Critical Point: The greatest equations ever”&lt;/a&gt;). In the book, I chose to discuss not the most frequently mentioned equations, but those that seem to have engaged their discoverers in the most remarkable journeys. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt; The journey metaphor may seem misleading if taken to suggest smooth and steady progress to an already known destination. The scientific journeys I recount — which include those culminating in &lt;i&gt;F=ma&lt;/i&gt;, and the equations of Maxwell and Schrödinger — were unpredicted, often protracted and erratic. The journey metaphor should also not imply that the travellers passively observed the changing scenery; in fact, the scientists interacted with their environment while altering it. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt; But the journey metaphor does capture one important aspect of the birth of these equations, which is how their originators’ ideas about what was important changed during the course of their research. Newton, Maxwell, Schrödinger and others each inherited a “landscape” or view of how knowledge about nature was organized. But during their research, new concepts — such as mass and force, entropy and displacement current, quanta and wave equations — appeared on the horizon, grew in importance and displaced others to assume positions as indispensable landmarks in the conceptual landscape. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt; For the ultimate destination of such scientists was not a particular location that they saw beforehand, but clarity. They were dissatisfied with what they had, perceived a vision of what might take its place, and were able to carry out the inquiry needed to realize it. At each step, they found the world to be somewhat discordant — not fully grasped — with hints of another, deeper order just over the horizon. This discordance is what makes newly realized equations seem, strangely, to be both discovered and invented. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt; Oliver Heaviside, who transformed Maxwell’s then-convoluted equations into their now-familiar versions, once remarked that “it was only by changing its form of presentation that I was able to see it [electromagnetism] clearly”. The sense of that remark — you transform to clarify — could have been said by any of the scientists mentioned in &lt;cite&gt;The Great Equations&lt;/cite&gt;.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;No royal road&lt;br /&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt; Most of the time we are less interested in journeys than in where they take us. But we can learn much from them. One is just how varied such journeys are. Sometimes they are taken by scientists who talk and argue constantly with one another, as with the equations of thermodynamics and the uncertainty principle. Other journeys were undertaken by individuals working essentially by themselves, such as Einstein in his path to general relativity and Schrödinger to his wave equation, though such individuals in effect carried on conversations with colleagues even when working alone. There is no royal road to discovery. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt; Another thing we learn is that equations are not simply inert tools that work only in the hands of scientists and engineers. They can also exert an educational and even cultural force that shapes our view of the world. The Pythagorean theorem teaches us what proof means, the second law of thermodynamics keeps in check our dreams of free energy, Einstein’s equations changed our understanding of space and time, and the work of Schrödinger and Heisenberg forces us to rethink what being a “thing” means. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt; We also learn to appreciate how deeply affecting the scientific life can be. The scientists who took those journeys were never blasé, never disinterested. They were infused with curiosity, consternation, bafflement, frustration and wonder. And each scientist had what might be called a particular style. Some succeeded because they were only satisfied when they found what they were looking for, while others succeeded only because they were prepared to see something more than they expected. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt; Most of all, the journeys allow us to glimpse the mutability of nature and our role in it. The journeys teach us that nature could be otherwise — that it &lt;i&gt;was&lt;/i&gt; otherwise for us until a moment ago, and for all we know it could change in the future. In such instances, we experience a transcendent moment in which a higher thought emerges in the middle of an existing one.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;The critical point&lt;br /&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;cite&gt;The Great Equations&lt;/cite&gt; ends by relating a conversation I had while writing the book, with an elderly physicist who expressed little comprehension and sympathy. To his workmanlike mind, the equations I mentioned seemed so obvious and logical that he could not picture not having known them, and he saw no value in making them more enigmatic. “Such equations”, he told me, “would not be wonderful if people realized how trivial they are. You should help them do so.” &lt;/p&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt; I could have hugged him. At that moment, I finally realized exactly what I was trying to do. It was exactly the opposite — to undo that sense of obviousness and triviality, and to take readers back to the moment just before the equations were discovered, to appreciate how &lt;i&gt;un&lt;/i&gt;trivial they are. Readers could, I hoped, thereby relive the wonder of the moment when the equations were first grasped — when they seemed simultaneously discovered and invented. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt; Scientists such as my physicist acquaintance tend to focus on the formal, discovered — what he meant by “trivial” — aspect of the birth of equations, whereas philosophers and historians tend to focus on the other aspect, having to do with their invention. It ought to be possible, I felt, to capture both aspects at once — which would, I thought, finally provide a more complete picture of the discovery process itself.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;br /&gt;About the author&lt;br /&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;a href="mailto:rcrease@notes.cc.sunysb.edu"&gt;Robert P Crease&lt;/a&gt; is chairman of the Department of Philosophy, Stony Brook University, and historian at the Brookhaven National Laboratory, US&lt;/p&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt; Fonte: &lt;a href="http://physicsworld.com/cws/article/print/37522"&gt;PhysicsWorld&lt;/a&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/3713351170951673128-5716505266826466181?l=www.fisica.net%2Fblog%2Findex.htm' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3713351170951673128/5716505266826466181/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='https://www.blogger.com/comment.g?blogID=3713351170951673128&amp;postID=5716505266826466181' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3713351170951673128/posts/default/5716505266826466181'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3713351170951673128/posts/default/5716505266826466181'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://www.fisica.net/blog/2009/02/journeys-to-greatness.html' title='Journeys to greatness'/><author><name>Alberto Ricardo Präss</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/00494192447938250801</uri><email>albertoprass@gmail.com</email><gd:extendedProperty xmlns:gd='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005' name='OpenSocialUserId' value='08794662322081882193'/></author><thr:total xmlns:thr='http://purl.org/syndication/thread/1.0'>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3713351170951673128.post-5745262960573085561</id><published>2009-01-18T13:36:00.001-08:00</published><updated>2009-01-18T13:36:53.758-08:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='profissão de físico'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='emprego para físico'/><title type='text'>Pai da world wide web é estrela da Campus Party Brasil</title><content type='html'>&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Um dos pontos altos da segunda edição da Campus Party Brasil será a presença de Tim Berners-Lee, criador da world wide web, pela primeira vez em evento oficial no País. Considerado um dos 100 gênios vivos do mundo pelo jornal Telegraph, o britânico participará da abertura do evento, no dia 19, e falará sobre a Web Semântica (3.0) em uma palestra no dia 20 às 13h.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Sir Timothy John Berners-Lee, 53, é o criador da world wide web, plataforma que popularizou a internet fora do meio acadêmico, e de algumas das utilidades mais importantes para o funcionamento da rede, como a linguagem HTML, o protocolo de comunicação para transferência de dados HTTP e o sistema de "endereçamento" URL.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Herança de família&lt;br /&gt;O interesse de Berners-Lee pela computação começou cedo, influenciado por seus pais, que eram matemáticos e trabalharam no desenvolvimento do Manchester Mark 1, um dos primeiros computadores criados.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Durante a faculdade de Física, na Universidade de Oxford, Berners-Lee montou seu próprio computador, usando uma televisão antiga e um processador M6800.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;A world wide web&lt;br /&gt;Depois de formado, em 1980, trabalhou como consultor de engenharia de software no CERN, o Laboratório Europeu de Física de Partículas, em Genebra. Lá ele começou pesquisas que formaram a base conceitual para o futuro desenvolvimento da web.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;O trabalho desenvolvido ao longo de anos resultou, em 1989, em um projeto global que ficaria conhecido como "world wide web", e que tinha como objetivo permitir que as pessoas trabalhassem juntas, compartilhando seus conhecimentos por meio de uma rede de documentos de hipertexto.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Ele desenvolveu o primeiro servidor de web, "httpd", e um navegador de hipertexto. A world wide web entrou no ar em dezembro de 1990 dentro do CERN, e em toda a internet em 1991.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Em 1994, Berners-Lee fundou o World Wide Web Consortium - órgão do qual é diretor - no Instituto de Tecnologia de Massachussets (MIT), nos Estados Unidos. O W3C, como também é conhecido, coordena o desenvolvimento da web em todo o mundo, com o objetivo de aproveitar todo o potencial da rede, garantindo sua estabilidade pela constante evolução.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Uma das decisões acatadas pelo W3C é que os padrões da web devem ser baseados em tecnologias livres de direitos autorais, para que possam ser facilmente adotados por todos.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Sir Timothy Berners-Lee&lt;br /&gt;Em reconhecimento à importância de seu trabalho, Tim Berners-Lee foi nomeado em 2004 Cavaleiro da Ordem do Império da rainha Elizabeth II, ganhando o título de Sir.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Atualmente, Berners-Lee se concentra em trabalhar os conceitos de Web Semântica (3.0), uma extensão da world wide web que entenderia o siginificado do conteúdo da rede.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Fonte: &lt;a href="http://tecnologia.terra.com.br/interna/0,,OI3456678-EI12933,00-Pai+da+world+wide+web+e+estrela+da+Campus+Party+Brasil.html"&gt;TERRA&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/3713351170951673128-5745262960573085561?l=www.fisica.net%2Fblog%2Findex.htm' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3713351170951673128/5745262960573085561/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='https://www.blogger.com/comment.g?blogID=3713351170951673128&amp;postID=5745262960573085561' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3713351170951673128/posts/default/5745262960573085561'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3713351170951673128/posts/default/5745262960573085561'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://www.fisica.net/blog/2009/01/pai-da-world-wide-web-estrela-da-campus.html' title='Pai da world wide web é estrela da Campus Party Brasil'/><author><name>Alberto Ricardo Präss</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/00494192447938250801</uri><email>albertoprass@gmail.com</email><gd:extendedProperty xmlns:gd='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005' name='OpenSocialUserId' value='08794662322081882193'/></author><thr:total xmlns:thr='http://purl.org/syndication/thread/1.0'>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3713351170951673128.post-2838447846703572459</id><published>2009-01-14T18:34:00.000-08:00</published><updated>2009-01-14T18:36:32.280-08:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='profissão de físico'/><title type='text'>Recommended Course of Study for Students Interested in Careers in Animation</title><content type='html'>&lt;span class="header"&gt;By DISNEY&lt;/span&gt; &lt;p&gt; The following describes skills Disney Feature Animation looks for in Artists, both Traditional and CGI. When looking for a college to attend, you may want to find one that has strong programs and classes in the following: &lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt; &lt;strong&gt;Drawing&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li&gt;Sequential Drawing - Drawing that tells a story in consecutive sequences&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Realistic, representational life drawing&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Anatomy&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Clothed-figure studies&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Quick studies&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Head, hands and feet drawing&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Animal drawing&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Quick sketches of urban surroundings and landscapes&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt; &lt;p&gt; &lt;strong&gt;Animation Skills&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(Not essential to obtaining an entry level position in Animation, although a plus if you have some experience)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li&gt;Squash and stretch&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Anticipation&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Follow through&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Overlapping action&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Pantomime&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Perspective&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Composition&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Stop Motion&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Claymation&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt; &lt;p&gt; &lt;strong&gt;Design and Color&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li&gt;Illustration&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Painting&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Color theory&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Design&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Composition&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Perspective&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt; &lt;p&gt; &lt;strong&gt;Film&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(Not essential to obtaining an entry level position in Animation, although a plus if you have some experience)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li&gt;Live-action cinematography and film history&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Understanding film language&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Editing&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Sound&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt; &lt;p&gt; &lt;b&gt;Additional Classes&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/b&gt; &lt;/p&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li&gt;Acting and improvisation &lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Art history &lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Animation history &lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;General history&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt; &lt;p&gt;In addition to the previously mentioned courses, students interested in CGI should consider a curriculum which includes the following: &lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt; &lt;b&gt;CGI (Computer-Generated Imagery)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/b&gt; (Not essential to obtaining an entry level position in Animation, although a plus if you have some experience)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li&gt;2D computer tools (Illusion, Matador, Amazon Paint, Fractal Painter, Photoshop, Composer, Shake, Discreet)&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Solid understanding of 3D animation disciplines (Modeling, Animation, Lighting, Rendering) and high-end graphics packages (i.e., Alias PowerAnimator, Maya, Softimage, RenderMan)&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Traditional Sculpture/Models (Modelers)&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Photography (Lighting)&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Technical problem-solving skills&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Programming in C/C++ and UNIX and high-end graphics packages (Technical Directors) (i.e., Alias PowerAnimator, Maya, Softimage, RenderMan)&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Computer Science, Math, Physics or Engineering courses (Software Technical Director)&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;Fonte: &lt;a href="http://corporate.disney.go.com/careers/feature_animation_course.html"&gt;Disney&lt;/a&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/3713351170951673128-2838447846703572459?l=www.fisica.net%2Fblog%2Findex.htm' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3713351170951673128/2838447846703572459/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='https://www.blogger.com/comment.g?blogID=3713351170951673128&amp;postID=2838447846703572459' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3713351170951673128/posts/default/2838447846703572459'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3713351170951673128/posts/default/2838447846703572459'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://www.fisica.net/blog/2009/01/recommended-course-of-study-for.html' title='Recommended Course of Study for Students Interested in Careers in Animation'/><author><name>Alberto Ricardo Präss</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/00494192447938250801</uri><email>albertoprass@gmail.com</email><gd:extendedProperty xmlns:gd='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005' name='OpenSocialUserId' value='08794662322081882193'/></author><thr:total xmlns:thr='http://purl.org/syndication/thread/1.0'>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3713351170951673128.post-3066262715824252292</id><published>2008-12-31T07:07:00.000-08:00</published><updated>2008-12-31T07:11:47.340-08:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Epistemologia'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Religião e Ciência'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='História da Ciência'/><title type='text'>San Alberto Magno</title><content type='html'>&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Conocido como Alberto el Grande, científico, filósofo y teólogo, nacido en el año 1206; murió en Colonia, el 15 de Noviembre de 1280. Fue llamado “el Grande” y “Doctor Universalis” (Doctor Universal) en reconocimiento a su genio extraordinario y extenso conocimiento y porque fue perito en todas las ramas del aprendizaje cultivado en su tiempo, sobrepasando a todos sus contemporáneos, excepto, quizás a Roger Bacon (1214-94) en el conocimiento de la naturaleza. Un contemporáneo, Ulrich Engelbert lo llamó la maravilla y el milagro de su época: "Vir in omni scientia adeo divinus, ut nostri temporis stupor et miraculum congrue vocari possit" (De summo bono, tr. III, iv).&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;I. Vida&lt;br /&gt;Alberto, el hijo mayor del Conde de  Bollstädt, nació en  Lauingen, Suabia, en el año 1205 o 1206, aunque muchos historiadores lo ubican en el año 1193. Nada cierto se sabe de su educación primaria o preparatoria, la cual fue recibida ya sea bajo el techo paternal o en una escuela del barrio. En su juventud fue enviado a continuar sus estudios en la Universidad de Padua; ciudad que fue escogida ya sea porque su tío residía en ella o porque Padua era famosa por su cultura y artes liberales, por lo cual el joven suabo tenía una predilección. La fecha de su partida a Padua no ha sido posible  determinar con precisión. En el año 1223, se unió a la orden de Santo Domingo, atraído por el discurso del Bendito Jordán de Sajonia, segundo Maestro General de la Orden. Los historiadores no nos pueden decir si los estudios de Alberto continuaron en Padua, Boloña, Paris o Colonia. Una vez completados sus estudios, enseñó teología en Hildesheim, Friburgo (Breisgay), Ratisbon, Straburgo y Colonia. Se encontraba en el convento en Colonia, interpretando el “Libro de las Sentencias” de Peter Lombard cuando, en 1245, se le ordenó partir a Paris. Allí, recibió el grado de Doctor en la universidad que, sobre todas las demás, fue celebrada como una escuela de teología. Fue durante este período de logro en Colonia y Paris que se contaba entre sus oyentes  Tomás de Aquino, entonces un joven silencioso y pensativo, cuyo genio fue reconocido y cuya futura grandeza predijo. El discípulo acompañó a su maestro a Paris en 1245, regresando con él en 1248 al nuevo Studuim Generale de Colonia, donde Alberto fue nombrado Regente, mientras Tomás se convirtió en segundo profesor y Magister Studentium (Maestro de estudiantes). En 1254, Alberto fue elegido Provincial de su Orden en Alemania. Viajó a Roma en 1256 a defender a las Ordenes de los Mendicantes contra los ataques de William de San Amour, cuyo libro “De novissimis temporum periculis” fue condenado por el Papa Alejandro IV, el 5 de Octubre de 1256. Durante  su permanencia en Roma, Alberto ocupó la oficina de Maestro del Palacio Sagrado (instituido en la época por Santo Domingo) y predicó sobre el Evangelio de San Juan y las Epístolas Canónicas. Renunció a la oficina Provincial en 1257 para dedicarse al estudio y la enseñanza. En el Capítulo General de los Dominicos, sostenido en Valencia en 1250, junto a Tomás de Aquino y Pedro de Tarentasia (luego, Papa Inocente V), estableció las reglas para la dirección de estudios y la determinación del sistema de graduación de la Orden. En el año 1260 fue nombrado Obispo de Ratisbon. Humberto de  Romanis, Maestro General de los Dominicos fue renuente a perder los servicios del gran Maestro, se esforzó en evitar su nombramiento, aunque no tuvo éxito. Alberto gobernó la diócesis hasta el año 1262 cuando, luego de aceptada su renuncia, voluntariamente reasumió los deberes de profesor en el Studuim en Colonia. En el año 1270, envió un informe a Santo Tomás combatiendo a Siger de Brabante y los Averroístas. Este era su segundo tratado especial contra el comentador árabe, el primero había sido escrito en 1256 bajo el título “De Unitate Intellectus Contra Averroem”. Fue llamado por el Papa Gregorio X para asistir al Concilio de Lyon (1274) sobre las deliberaciones donde tomó parte activa. El anuncio de la muerte de San Tomás en Fossa Nova, mientras precedía el Concilio, fue un duro golpe para Alberto y declaró que “La Luz de la Iglesia” había ido apagada. Naturalmente creció en él el amor por su distinguido y santo pupilo y se dice que luego de su muerte, no podía sino derramar lágrimas cuando se nombrada  o se mencionaba a Santo Tomás. Algo de su viejo vigor y espíritu volvió en 1277 cuando se anunció que Esteban Tempier y otros deseaban condenar los escritos de Santo Tomás bajo el cargo que eran demasiado favorables a los filósofos ateos a si es que viajó a Paris a defender la memoria de su discípulo. Tiempo después de 1278 (año en el cual escribió su testamento) sufrió un lapso de memoria; su fuerte mente  gradualmente se fue nublando; su cuerpo se debilitó con las vigilias, la austeridad y numerosos trabajos hundiéndose bajo el peso de los años. Beatificado por el Papa Gregorio XV en 1622; su fiesta es celebrada el 15 de Noviembre. Los obispos de Alemania se reunieron en Fulda en Septiembre de 1872, enviando a la Santa Sede la petición de su canonización; finalmente canonizado en 1931.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;II. Trabajos&lt;br /&gt;Se han publicado dos ediciones de los trabajos completos de Alberto (Opera Omnia); una en Lyon en 1651 en 21 volúmenes editados por el Padre Peter Jammy, O.P., y la otra en Paris (Louis Vivés), 1890-99 en 38 volúmenes, publicados bajo la dirección del Abad Augusto Borgnet, de la diócesis de Reims. Paul von Loe entrega una cronología de los escritos de Alberto, la “Analecta Bollandioada” (De vita et scriptis B. Albt. Magno, XIX, XX y XXI). El orden lógico fue dado por P. Mandonnet, O.P., en el Diccionario de Vacante “Dictionnaire de théologie catholique”.  La siguiente lista indica los temas de sus variados tratados, y los números se refieren a los volúmenes de la edición de Borgnet. Lógica : siete tratados (I.2). Ciencias Físicas: “Physicorum” (3); “De Coelo et Mundo”, “De Generatione et Corruptione”. “Meteororum” (4); “Mineralium (5); "De Natura locorum", " De passionibus aeris" (9). Biológicos: "De vegetabilibus et plantis" (10) " De animalibus" (11-12); "De motibus animalium", "De nutrimento et nutribili", "De aetate", "De morte et vita", "De spiritu et respiratione" (9). Psicológicos: "De Anima" (5); "De sensu et sensato", "De Memoria, et reminiscentia", "De somno et vigilia", "De natura et origine animae", "De intellectu et intelligibili", "De unitate intellectus" (9). Los temas precedentes, con excepción de la Lógica, son tratados en compendio en la “Philosophia pauperum” (5).&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Moral y Polítical: "Ethicorum" (7); "Politocorum (8). Metaphysical: "Metaphysicorum" (6); "De causis et processu universitatis" (10). Teológicasl: "Comentarios sobre el trabajo de Denis el Aeropagita” (14); "Comentario a las Sentencias de Lombardo” (25-30); "Summa Theologiae" (31-33); "Summa de creaturis" (34-35); "De sacramento Eucharistiae" (38); "Super evangelium missus est" (37). Exégetas: "Comentarios sobre los Salmos y Profetas” (15-19); "Comentarios sobre los Evangelios” (20-24); "Sobre el Apocalipsis" (38). Sermones (13). El "Quindecim problemata contra Averroistas", editado por Mandonnet en su "Siger de Brabant" (Freiburg, 1899). La autenticidad de los siguientes trabajos aún no ha sido establecida: : "De apprehensione" (5); "Speculum astronomicum" (5); "De alchimia" (38); Scriptum super arborem Aristotelis" (38); "Paradisus animae" (37); "Liber de Adhaerendo Deo" (37); "De Laudibus B. Virginis" (36); "Biblia Mariana" (37).&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;III. Influencia&lt;br /&gt;La influencia ejercida por Alberto sobre los hombres de letras de sus propios días y aquellos de épocas subsiguientes, fue naturalmente enorme. Su fama se debe en parte al hecho que él era un precursor, el guía y maestro de Santo Tomás de Aquino, aunque su grandeza fue por mérito propio y su distinción reconocida por sus contemporáneos y por la posteridad. Es notable que este fraile de la Edad Media, en el seno de sus muchos deberes como religioso, como provincial de su orden, como obispo y legado papal, como predicador de una cruzada, también realizaba muchos viajes  trabajosos desde Colonia a Paris y Roma y frecuentes excursiones a distintos lugares de Alemania, pudo haber sido capaz de componer una verdadera enciclopedia, conteniendo tratados científicos en casi todos los temas, y desplegando un conocimiento de la naturaleza y de teología que sorprende a sus contemporáneos y aún incita la admiración de hombres peritos en nuestros propios tiempos. Era, por cierto, un Doctor Universalis. Sería justo decir de él: Nil tetigit quod non ornavit; y no hay exageración en los párrafos de la crítica moderna que escribió: “Sea él considerado como teólogo o como filósofo, Alberto era, sin lugar a dudas, uno de los extraordinarios hombres de su época; y podría decir, uno de los mas maravillosos hombres de genio que apareció en tiempo pasados” (Jourdain, Recherches Critiques). En los tiempos de Alberto, la Filosofía era una ciencia general que abrazaba todo aquello que puede ser conocido por las solas fuerzas naturales de la mente; física, matemáticas y metafísica. En su escritos, es verdad, no encontramos la distinción entre las ciencias y la filosofía lo cual es solo reciente. Sería, sin embargo, conveniente considerar su habilidad en las ciencias experimentales, su influencia sobre la filosofía escolástica, y su teología.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;IV. Alberto y las Ciencias Experimentales&lt;br /&gt;No es sorpresa que Alberto debió surgir desde las fuentes de información que en su tiempo habían, y especialmente sobre los escritos científicos de Aristóteles. Sin embargo, él decía: El ánimo de las ciencias naturales no es simplemente aceptar los juicios (narrata) de otros, sino la investigación de las causas que son ejercidas en la naturaleza” (De Miner., Lib. II, tr.ii,i) En su tratado de las plantas, arroja el siguiente principio: Experimentum solum certificat in talibus  (El experimento es la única guía segura en tales investigaciones).  (De Veg., VI, tr. ii, i). Profundamente versado como lo era en teología, él declara: “Al estudiar la naturaleza, no investigamos como Dios, el Creador puede, como él mismo libremente desea, usar a sus criaturas para realizar milagros y de éste modo mostrar su poder: sino, debemos preguntarnos qué es lo que la Naturaleza con sus causas inmanentes, puede naturalmente realizar” (De Coelo et Mundo, I, tr. iv, x). Y, aunque, en asuntos de ciencias naturales, él prefería a Aristóteles en vez de San Agustín (In 2, Sent. dist. 13, C art. 2), no titubeaba en criticar al filósofo griego “ Quienquiera creer que Aristóteles fue un dios, también debe creer que nunca se equivocó. Pero si uno cree que Aristóteles fue un hombre, entonces, sin dudas, era posible para él el error como lo es para nosotros”  (Physic. lib. VIII, tr. 1, xiv). De hecho, Alberto dedica un largo capítulo a lo que él llamó “los errores de Aristóteles” (Sum. Theol. P. II, tr. i, quaest. iv). En una palabra, su apreciación de Aristóteles, era crítica. Merece crédito no sólo por mostrar las enseñanzas científicas del Estagirita para  atención de los académicos medievales, sino también por mostrar el método y el espíritu bajo el cual tales enseñanzas debían recibirse. Tal como su contemporáneo, Roger Bacon (1214-94), Alberto era un infatigable estudiante de la naturaleza y se dedicó enérgicamente a las ciencias experimentales con tal notable éxito que fue acusado de abandonar las ciencias sagradas (Enrique de Ghent, De Scriptoribus ecclesiasticis, II,x). Sin dudas, han circulado muchas leyendas que le atribuyen el poder de un mago o brujo. El Dr. Sighart (Albertus Magnus) examinó estas leyendas y se esforzó por escrudiñar la verdad de las historias falsas o exageradas. Otros biógrafos se contentaban con hacer notar el hecho que la pericia de Alberto en las ciencias físicas fue el fundamento sobre el cual se construyeron las fábulas. La verdad radica entre los dos extremos. Alberto era asiduo en cultivar las ciencias naturales; era una autoridad en física, geografía, astronomía, mineralogía, química (alquimia), zoología, fisiología e incluso frenología. En todas estas materias era ampliamente erudito y muchas de sus observaciones tienen valor permanente. Humboldt pagó un alto tributo a su conocimiento sobre geografía física (Cosmos, II, vi). Meyer escribe (Gesch. Der Botanik): “Ningún botánico que viviera antes de Alberto se le puede comparar, a no ser por Theophrasus, a quién él no conocía; y luego de él nadie ha pintado la naturaleza con tales vivos colores o haberla estudiado tan profundamente hasta el tiempo de Conrad, Gesner y Cesalpini. Todos honraron, entonces,, al hombre que hizo tales impresionantes progresos en la ciencia de la naturaleza, si ninguno, no diría notable, pero si quiera igual a él por el período de tres siglos. “La lista de sus trabajos publicados es suficiente vindicación del cargo de abandono de la teología y las Sagradas Escrituras. Por otro lado, expresó contento por todo aquello que sabía a encanto o al arte de la magia: "Non approbo dictum Avicennae et Algazel de fascinatione, quia credo quod non nocet fascinatio, nec nocere potest ars magica, nec facit aliquid ex his quae timentur de talibus" (Ver Quétif, I, 167). Es evidente desde su propias palabras, que no era posible hacer oro por alquimia o por el uso de la piedra filosofal: “El arte sólo, no puede producir una forma sustancial” (Non est probatum hoc quod educitur de plumbo esse aurum, eo quod sola ars non potest dare formam substantialem -- De Mineral., lib. II, dist. 3). Roger Bacon y Alberto probaron al mundo que la Iglesia no se oponía al estudio de la naturaleza que la ciencia y la fe pueden ir de la mano; sus vidas y escritos enfatizaron la importancia de la experimentación y la investigación. Bacon fue infatigable y osado en la investigación; en ciertos momentos, también, su crítica era aguda. Pero, de Alberto dijo:  "Studiosissimus erat, et vidit infinita, et habuit expensum, et ideo multa potuit colligere in pelago auctorum infinito" (Opera, ed. Brewer, 327). Alberto respetaba la autoridad y las tradiciones, era prudente al proponer los resultados de sus investigaciones y, por lo tanto “contribuyó mucho más que Bacon en el avance de la ciencia en el siglo XIII” (Turner, Hist. De la Filosofía). Su método para tratar las ciencias fue histórico y crítico. Reunió en una vasta enciclopedia todo lo conocido en su tiempo, y luego expresó sus opiniones, principalmente bajo de forma de comentarios sobre los trabajos de Aristóteles. A veces, sin embargo, vacilaba, y no expresaba su opinión, probablemente porque temía que sus teorías, las cuales eran avanzadas para su época, pudieran crear sorpresa y ser ocasión de comentarios desfavorables."Dicta peripateticorum, prout melius potui exposui: nec aliquis in eo potest deprehendere quid ego ipse sentiam in philosophia naturali" (De Animalibus, circa finem). En Augusta Theodosia el excelente trabajo de Drane sobre "Escuelas Cristianas y Pupilos” (419 sqq.) hay algunas interesantes notas sobre “algunas visiones científicas de Alberto que muestran cuánto le debió a su propia observación sagaz del fenómeno natural, y cuán avanzado estaba en relación a su tiempo...” Hablando de las Islas Británicas, aludía a la comúnmente recibida idea que otra Isla – Tile o Tule – existió en el Océano Occidental, inhabitado por razón de su terrible clima “pero el cual” decía, tal vez aún no ha sido visitado por el hombre”. Alberto dio una elaborada demostración de la esferidad de la tierra; y se ha mencionado que su visión en este tema eventualmente condujo al descubrimiento de América (cf. Mandonnet, in "Revue Thomiste", I, 1893; 46-64, 200-221).&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;V. Alberto y la Filosofía Escolástica&lt;br /&gt;Más importante que el desarrollo de Alberto de las ciencias físicas, fue su influencia sobre el estudio de la filosofía y la teología. Él, más que ningún otro gran escolástico que precediera a Santo Tomás, dio a la filosofía y la teología Cristiana la forma y método el cual, sustancialmente, se mantiene hasta nuestros días. En este sentido, fue el precursor y maestro de Santo Tomás, quien lo superó, sin embargo, en muchas cualidades requeridas de un perfecto Doctor Cristiano. En el sendero que otros siguieron, Alberto compartió la gloria de ser el pionero con Alejandro de Hales (m. 1245) cuya “Suma Teológica” fue la primera escrita luego que todos los trabajos de Aristóteles fueran generalmente conocidos en Paris. Su aplicación de los métodos aristotélicos y principios al estudio de la doctrina revelada, dieron al mundo el sistema escolástico el cual  dio cuerpo a la reconciliación de la razón con la fe Ortodoxa. Luego del no ortodoxo Averroes, Alberto fue el principal comentador de loa trabajos de Aristóteles, cuyos escritos estudió asiduamente, y cuyos principios adoptó para sistematizar la teología, a través de la cual de pretendió la exposición y defensa de la doctrina Cristiana.  La elección de Aristóteles como maestro produjo una fuerte oposición. Los comentarios Judíos y Árabes sobre los trabajos del Estagirita, habían despertado tantos errores en los siglos XI, XII y XIII, que por varios años (1210-25) el estudios de la Física y Metafísica de Aristóteles fue prohibida en Paris. Sin embargo, Alberto, sabía que Averroes, Abelardo, Amalrico y otros habían levantado falsas doctrinas desde los escritos  del filósofo; más aún, él sabía que habría sido imposible rendir la marea de entusiasmo en favor de estudios filosóficos; y así resolvió purificar los trabajos de Aristóteles, del Racionalismo, Averroísmo, Panteísmo y otros errores y, por consiguiente,  precisar la filosofía pagana para servir en la causa de la verdad revelada. En esto, él siguió el canon dejado por San Agustín (II de Doct. Christi, xl) quien declaró que las verdades encontradas en los escritos de filósofos paganos debían ser adoptadas por los defensores de la fe verdadera, mientras que su opiniones erradas debían ser abandonadas, o explicadas bajo un sentido Cristiano.. (See St. Thomas, Summa Theol., I, Q. lxxxiv, a. 5.) Todas las ciencias inferiores (naturales) deben ser servidoras (ancillae) de la Teología que es la superior y la ama&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(ibid., 1 P., tr. 1, quaest. 6). Contra el racionalismo de Abelardo y sus seguidores, Alberto puntualizó la distinción entre las verdades naturalmente conocibles y los misterios (ejemplo, La Trinidad y la Encarnación) las cuales no pueden ser sabidas sin la Revelación.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(ibid., 1 P., tr. III, quaest. 13). Hemos visto que escribió dos tratados contra el Averroísmo, los cuales destruyeron la inmortalidad individual y la responsabilidad individual, al enseñar que hay una alma pero racional para todos los hombres. El Panteísmo fue refutado junto con el Averroísmo cuando la verdadera doctrina de los Universales, el sistema conocido como el Realismo moderado, fue aceptado por los filósofos escolásticos. Esta doctrina fue basada por Alberto sobre la Distinción del universal ante rem ( una idea o arquetipo en la mente de Dios) in re (existente o capaz de existir en muchos individuos) y la post rem (como un concepto abstraído de la mente y comparado con los individuos de los cuales puede ser predicado)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"Universale duobus constituitur, natura, scilicet cui accidit universalitas, et respectu ad multa. qui complet illam in natura universalis" (Met., lib. V, tr. vi, cc. v, vi). A.T. Drane (Madre Raphael, O.S.D.) dá una notable explicación de estas doctrinas (op.cit. 344-429). Aunque seguidor de Aristóteles, Alberto no abandonó a Platón: "Scias quod non perficitur homo in philosophia, nisi scientia duarum philosophiarum, Aristotelis et Platonis (Met., lib. I, tr. v, c. xv). Sería errado decir que fue meramente un “simio” (simius) de Aristóteles. En el conocimiento de las cosas Divinas, la fe precede la comprensión de la verdad Divina, la autoridad precede a la razón (I Sent., dist. II, a. 10); pero las materias que pueden ser conocidas naturalmente, un filósofo no debe mantener una opinión la cual él no esté preparado a defender con la razón (ibid., XII; Periherm., 1, I, tr 1, c i).  La Lógica, de acuerdo a Alberto, es la preparación de la enseñanza de la filosofía de cómo debemos usar la razón para pasar de lo desconocido a lo conocido:&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;"Docens qualiter et per quae devenitur per notum ad ignoti notitiam" (De praedicabilibus, tr. I, c. iv). La filosofía es o contemplativa o práctica. La filosofía contemplativa abraza la física, matemáticas y metafísica; la filosofía práctica (moral) es monástica (para el individuo) doméstica (para la familia) o política (para el estado o sociedad). Excluyendo la física, ahora un estudio especial, los autores de nuestro tiempo aún retienen la vieja división escolástica de filosofía a lógica, metafísica (general y especial) y la Ética.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;VI. La Teología de Alberto&lt;br /&gt;En Teología, Alberto ocupa un lugar entre Pedro Lombardo, el Maestro de las Sentencias, y Santo Tomás de Aquino. En un orden sistemático, de rigurosidad y claridad, superó al primero pero es inferior a su propia discípulo ilustrísimo. Su “Suma Teológica” marca un avance mas allá de las costumbres de su tiempo en el orden científico observado, en la eliminación de asuntos inútiles, en la limitación de los argumentos y objeciones; sin embargo, aún se mantienen muchos de los impedimentos, obstáculos o piezas tambaleantes que Santo Tomás consideró suficientemente serios como para un nuevo manual de teología para uso de principiantes. – ad eruditionem incipientium, como el modesto Doctor Angélico notó en el prólogo de su inmortal “Summa”. La mente del Doctor Universalis, estaba tan llena de conocimiento de muchas cosas que no siempre pudo adaptar sus exposiciones de la verdad a la capacidad de los novicios en la ciencia de la teología. Enseñó y dirigió un pupilo que dio al mundo una exposición científica concisa, clara y perfecta y una defensa de la Doctrina Cristiana; ante Dios, por lo tanto, le debemos a Alberto Magno, la “Summa Theologica” de Santo Tomás.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;D.J. KENNEDY&lt;br /&gt;Transcrito por Kevin Cawley&lt;br /&gt;Traducido por: Carolina Eyzaguirre A.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Fonte: &lt;a href="http://ec.aciprensa.com/a/albermagno.htm"&gt;Enciclopedia Católica&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/3713351170951673128-3066262715824252292?l=www.fisica.net%2Fblog%2Findex.htm' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3713351170951673128/3066262715824252292/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='https://www.blogger.com/comment.g?blogID=3713351170951673128&amp;postID=3066262715824252292' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3713351170951673128/posts/default/3066262715824252292'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3713351170951673128/posts/default/3066262715824252292'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://www.fisica.net/blog/2008/12/san-alberto-magno.html' title='San Alberto Magno'/><author><name>Alberto Ricardo Präss</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/00494192447938250801</uri><email>albertoprass@gmail.com</email><gd:extendedProperty xmlns:gd='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005' name='OpenSocialUserId' value='08794662322081882193'/></author><thr:total xmlns:thr='http://purl.org/syndication/thread/1.0'>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3713351170951673128.post-1984244298714289708</id><published>2008-12-28T05:54:00.001-08:00</published><updated>2008-12-28T05:56:07.079-08:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='profissão de físico'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='emprego para físico'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='concurso para físico'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='físicos'/><title type='text'>Concurso para físico da usina nuclear de Angra dos Reis</title><content type='html'>&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;a href="http://www.fesp.rj.gov.br/fesp_2007/concursos/eletronuclear1/paginaeletronuclear1.asp"&gt;http://www.fesp.rj.gov.br/fesp_2007/concursos/eletronuclear1/paginaeletronuclear1.asp&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;FÍSICO(A)  -  CONHECIMENTOS ESPECÍFICOS&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Física Geral, Mecânica Clássica e Relatividade, Mecânica Quântica, Eletromagnetismo, Termodinâmica e Física Estatística, Princípios de Física Atômica, Molecular e Ótica, Física dos Sólidos, Princípios de Física Nuclear, Princípios gerais de Proteção Radiológica.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Sugestões Bibliográficas:&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;B.H. Bransden e C.J. Joachain, Physics of Atoms and Molecules, 2nd. Ed., Pearson Education Limited, UK, 2003&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;C. Cohen-Tannoudji, B. Diu e F. Laloe, Quantum Mechanics, (X) ed. Ed. Wiley-Interscience, New Jersey, 1977.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;C. Kittel e H. Kroemer, Thermal Physics, 2a ed. Ed. W. H. Freeman, New York, 1980.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;C. Kittel, Introduction to Solid State Physics, 8a. ed. Ed. J. Wiley &amp;amp; Sons, New York, 2005.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;D. J. Griffiths, Introduction to Electrodynamics, 3a ed. Ed. Prentice-Hall, New Jersey, 1999.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;D. P. Menezes, Introdução à Física Nuclear e de Partículas Elementares,  Ed. UFSC, Florianópolis, 2002&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;F. H. Attix, Introduction to Radiological Physics and Radiation Dosimetry. Ed. J. Wiley &amp;amp; Sons, New York, 1986.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;H. Goldstein, Classical mechanics, 2a ed. Ed. Addison-Wesley, Reading, 1980.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;H. M. Nussenzveig,  Curso de Física Básica (volumes 1 a 4),  2a ed, Ed. Edgard Blücher LTDA, São Paulo, 1995.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;J. D. Jackson, Classical Electrodynamics, 3a ed. Ed. J. Wiley &amp;amp; Sons, New York, 1998.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;K. C Chung, Introdução à Física Nuclear, Ed. UERJ, Rio de Janeiro, 2001.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;K. R. Symon, Mechanics, 3a ed. Ed. Addison-Wesley, Reading, 1971.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;N. W. Ashcroft e N. D.  Mermin, Solid State Physics, (X) ed. Ed. Saunders College, Philadelphia, 1976.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;P. A. Tipler, Física para cientistas e engenheiros, Volume 4: Ótica e física moderna. 3a ed. Ed. Guanabara Koogan, Rio de Janeiro, 1994.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;R. Reif, Fundamentals of Statistical and Thermal Physics, 1a ed. Ed. McGraw-Hill, New York, 1965.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;S. Gasiorowicz, Física Quântica, 3a ed. Ed. Guanabara Dois, Rio de Janeiro, 1979.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;FÍSICO(A)  -  BLINDAGEM E PROTEÇÃO RADIOLÓGICA  -  CONHECIMENTOS ESPECÍFICOS&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Física Geral, Mecânica Clássica e Relatividade, Mecânica Quântica, Eletromagnetismo, Termodinâmica e Física Estatística, Princípios de Física Atômica, Molecular e Ótica, Física dos Sólidos, Princípios de Física Nuclear, Proteção Radiológica e Blindagem Convencional, incluindo: radiação ionizante, grandezas dosimétricas e radiológicas, atenuação exponencial, HVL, TVL. equilíbrio de radiação e partículas carregadas, dose absorvida, decaimento radioativo, interações entre fótons e matéria, produção e qualidade de raios-X, teoria da cavidade, fundamentos de dosimetria, interações e dosimetria de nêutrons.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Sugestões Bibliográficas:&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;B.H. Bransden e C.J. Joachain, Physics of Atoms and Molecules, 2nd. Ed., Pearson Education Limited, UK, 2003&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;C. Cohen-Tannoudji, B. Diu e F. Laloe, Quantum Mechanics, (X) ed. Ed. Wiley-Interscience, New Jersey, 1977.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;C. Kittel e H. Kroemer, Thermal Physics, 2a ed. Ed. W. H. Freeman, New York, 1980.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;C. Kittel, Introduction to Solid State Physics, 8a. ed. Ed. J. Wiley &amp;amp; Sons, New York, 2005.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;D. J. Griffiths, Introduction to Electrodynamics, 3a ed. Ed. Prentice-Hall, New Jersey, 1999.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;D. P. Menezes, Introdução à Física Nuclear e de Partículas Elementares,  Ed. UFSC, Florianópolis, 2002&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;F. H. Attix, Introduction to Radiological Physics and Radiation Dosimetry. Ed. J. Wiley &amp;amp; Sons, New York, 1986.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;H. Goldstein, Classical mechanics, 2a ed. Ed. Addison-Wesley, Reading, 1980.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;H. M. Nussenzveig,  Curso de Física Básica (volumes 1 a 4),  2a ed, Ed. Edgard Blücher LTDA, São Paulo, 1995.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;J. D. Jackson, Classical Electrodynamics, 3a ed. Ed. J. Wiley &amp;amp; Sons, New York, 1998.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;K. C Chung, Introdução à Física Nuclear, Ed. UERJ, Rio de Janeiro, 2001.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;K. R. Symon, Mechanics, 3a ed. Ed. Addison-Wesley, Reading, 1971.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;N. W. Ashcroft e N. D.  Mermin, Solid State Physics, (X) ed. Ed. Saunders College, Philadelphia, 1976.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;P. A. Tipler, Física para cientistas e engenheiros, Volume 4: Ótica e física moderna. 3a ed. Ed. Guanabara Koogan, Rio de Janeiro, 1994.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;R. Reif, Fundamentals of Statistical and Thermal Physics, 1a ed. Ed. McGraw-Hill, New York, 1965.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;S. Gasiorowicz, Física Quântica, 3a ed. Ed. Guanabara Dois, Rio de Janeiro, 1979.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;FÍSICO(A)  -  NUCLEAR: FÍSICA DE REATORES  -  CONHECIMENTOS ESPECÍFICOS&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Características termohidráulicas dos vários tipos de reatores nucleares: PWR, BWR, LMFBR, HTGR.  Propriedades dos materiais usados em reatores nucleares. Princípios de projeto térmico do reator.  Limitações no projeto termohidráulico. Geração de calor no reator, DNBR, fator de pico de potência, fator de canal quente. Termodinâmica de sistemas nucleares, ciclos de Rankine simples e complexo, ciclos de Brayton simples e complexo, ciclo combinado. Condução de calor nos elementos combustíveis. Distribuição de temperatura no combustível, revestimento e refrigerante. Escoamentos monofásico e bifásico. Transferência de calor monofásica para o refrigerante. Transferência de calor com mudança de fase. Termohidráulica simples do núcleo. Análise termohidráulica monofásica de um canal aquecido.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Sugestões Bibliográficas:&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;N.E. Todreas e M.S. Kazimi, Nuclear Systems: Vol. I, Thermal Hydraulic&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Fundamentals, Hemisphere, New York, 1990.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;J.H. Rust, Nuclear Power Plant Engineering, Haralson, Buchanan, Georgia, 1979.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;M.M. El-Wakil, Nuclear Heat Transport, International Textbook Co., Scranton,&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Pennsylvania, 1971.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;FÍSICO(A) – TREINAMENTO -  CONHECIMENTOS ESPECÍFICOS&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Física Geral, Mecânica Clássica e Relatividade, Mecânica Quântica, Eletromagnetismo, Termodinâmica e Física Estatística, Princípios de Física Atômica, Molecular e Ótica, Física dos Sólidos, Princípios de Física Nuclear, Princípios gerais de Proteção Radiológica. Uma fração da prova dará ênfase à compreensão e explicação simples de fenômenos físicos, e à assimilação de novos conceitos à partir da base acima e sua tradução e interpretação a uma linguagem simples.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Sugestões Bibliográficas:&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;H. M. Nussenzveig,  Curso de Física Básica (volumes 1 a 4),  2a ed, Ed. Edgard Blücher LTDA, São Paulo, 1995.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;P. A. Tipler, Física para cientistas e engenheiros, Volume 4: Ótica e física moderna. 3a ed. Ed. Guanabara Koogan, Rio de Janeiro, 1994.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;H. Goldstein, Classical mechanics, 2a ed. Ed. Addison-Wesley, Reading, 1980.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;K. R. Symon, Mechanics, 3a ed. Ed. Addison-Wesley, Reading, 1971.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;J. D. Jackson, Classical Electrodynamics, 3a ed. Ed. J. Wiley &amp;amp; Sons, New York, 1998.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;D. J. Griffiths, Introduction to Electrodynamics, 3a ed. Ed. Prentice-Hall, New Jersey, 1999.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;R. Reif, Fundamentals of Statistical and Thermal Physics, 1a ed. Ed. McGraw-Hill, New York, 1965.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;C. Kittel e H. Kroemer, Thermal Physics, 2a ed. Ed. W. H. Freeman, New York, 1980.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;C. Kittel, Introduction to Solid State Physics, 8a. ed. Ed. J. Wiley &amp;amp; Sons, New York, 2005.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;N. W. Ashcroft e N. D.  Mermin, Solid State Physics, (X) ed. Ed. Saunders College, Philadelphia, 1976.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;C. Cohen-Tannoudji, B. Diu e F. Laloe, Quantum Mechanics, (X) ed. Ed. Wiley-Interscience, New Jersey, 1977.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;S. Gasiorowicz, Física Quântica, 3a ed. Ed. Guanabara Dois, Rio de Janeiro, 1979.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;B.H. Bransden e C.J. Joachain, Physics of Atoms and Molecules, 2nd. Ed., Pearson Education Limited, UK, 2003&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;K. C Chung, Introdução à Física Nuclear, Ed. UERJ, Rio de Janeiro, 2001.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;D. P. Menezes, Introdução à Física Nuclear e de Partículas Elementares,  Ed. UFSC, Florianópolis, 2002&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;F. H. Attix, Introduction to Radiological Physics and Radiation Dosimetry. Ed. J. Wiley &amp;amp; Sons, New York, 1986.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;FÍSICO(A) – ANÁLISE PROBABILÍSTICA DE SEGURANÇA  -  CONHECIMENTOS ESPECÍFICOS&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Física Geral, Mecânica Clássica e Relatividade, Mecânica Quântica, Eletromagnetismo, Termodinâmica e Física Estatística, Princípios de Física Atômica, Molecular e Ótica, Física dos Sólidos, Princípios de Física Nuclear, Princípios gerais de Proteção Radiológica. Uma fração da prova dará ênfase à construção de modelos à partir da base de conhecimentos acima; além de ênfase em Probabilidade e Estatística.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Sugestões Bibliográficas:&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;H. M. Nussenzveig,  Curso de Física Básica (volumes 1 a 4),  2a ed, Ed. Edgard Blücher LTDA, São Paulo, 1995.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;P. A. Tipler, Física para cientistas e engenheiros, Volume 4: Ótica e física moderna. 3a ed. Ed. Guanabara Koogan, Rio de Janeiro, 1994.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;H. Goldstein, Classical mechanics, 2a ed. Ed. Addison-Wesley, Reading, 1980.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;K. R. Symon, Mechanics, 3a ed. Ed. Addison-Wesley, Reading, 1971.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;J. D. Jackson, Classical Electrodynamics, 3a ed. Ed. J. Wiley &amp;amp; Sons, New York, 1998.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;D. J. Griffiths, Introduction to Electrodynamics, 3a ed. Ed. Prentice-Hall, New Jersey, 1999.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;R. Reif, Fundamentals of Statistical and Thermal Physics, 1a ed. Ed. McGraw-Hill, New York, 1965.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;C. Kittel e H. Kroemer, Thermal Physics, 2a ed. Ed. W. H. Freeman, New York, 1980.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;C. Kittel, Introduction to Solid State Physics, 8a. ed. Ed. J. Wiley &amp;amp; Sons, New York, 2005.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;N. W. Ashcroft e N. D.  Mermin, Solid State Physics, (X) ed. Ed. Saunders College, Philadelphia, 1976.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;C. Cohen-Tannoudji, B. Diu e F. Laloe, Quantum Mechanics, (X) ed. Ed. Wiley-Interscience, New Jersey, 1977.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;S. Gasiorowicz, Física Quântica, 3a ed. Ed. Guanabara Dois, Rio de Janeiro, 1979.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;B.H. Bransden e C.J. Joachain, Physics of Atoms and Molecules, 2nd. Ed., Pearson Education Limited, UK, 2003&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;K. C Chung, Introdução à Física Nuclear, Ed. UERJ, Rio de Janeiro, 2001.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;D. P. Menezes, Introdução à Física Nuclear e de Partículas Elementares,  Ed. UFSC, Florianópolis, 2002&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;F. H. Attix, Introduction to Radiological Physics and Radiation Dosimetry. Ed. J. Wiley &amp;amp; Sons, New York, 1986.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/3713351170951673128-1984244298714289708?l=www.fisica.net%2Fblog%2Findex.htm' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3713351170951673128/1984244298714289708/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='https://www.blogger.com/comment.g?blogID=3713351170951673128&amp;postID=1984244298714289708' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3713351170951673128/posts/default/1984244298714289708'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3713351170951673128/posts/default/1984244298714289708'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://www.fisica.net/blog/2008/12/concurso-para-fsico-da-usina-nuclear-de.html' title='Concurso para físico da usina nuclear de Angra dos Reis'/><author><name>Alberto Ricardo Präss</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/00494192447938250801</uri><email>albertoprass@gmail.com</email><gd:extendedProperty xmlns:gd='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005' name='OpenSocialUserId' value='08794662322081882193'/></author><thr:total xmlns:thr='http://purl.org/syndication/thread/1.0'>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3713351170951673128.post-1848160459529922576</id><published>2008-12-19T11:13:00.000-08:00</published><updated>2008-12-19T11:19:33.256-08:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Física'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='História da Ciência'/><title type='text'>Carta de Einstein a Vargas</title><content type='html'>&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;24 de maio de 1952&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Dr. Getúlio Vargas&lt;br /&gt;Presidente da República do Brasil&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Rio de Janeiro, Brasil&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Caro Sr. Presidente&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;OProfessor Abrahão de Moraes sugeriu-me que podem surgir  circunstâncias nas quais seria desejável uma carta, em favor do  Dr. David Bohm, dirigida ao Presidente do Brasil. Esta carta&lt;br /&gt;é o resultado dessa sugestão.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Dr. Bohm, que eu conheço há vários anos é, na minha opinião, um  físico teórico muito destacado e original. Profissionalmente ele tem contribuído para o crescimento do nosso conhecimento da mecânica quântica e, mais recentemente, tornou-se muito interessado nas implicações filosóficas fundamentais daquela teoria. Ele é também um professor excepcionalmente capaz e uma fonte de inspiração para seus alunos.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Eu acredito que saiba que Dr. Bohm teve algumas dificuldades políticas nos Estados Unidos. Eu não tenho nenhuma hesitação em afirmar que, na minha opinião, aquelas dificuldades resultaram da tensa situação do pós-guerra e em nada dizem respeito ao caráter moral do Dr. Bohm. Eu tive nó passado, e continuo a ter, a mais elevada confiança nele, tanto como cientista quanto como pessoa.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Respeitosamente,&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Albert Einstein&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;O documento complementa o artigo dos professores Olival Freire Jr., Michel&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Paty e A. L. da Rocha Barros -David Bohm, sua estada no Brasil e a Teoria&lt;br /&gt;Quântica - publicado no número 20 de Estudos Avançados.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/3713351170951673128-1848160459529922576?l=www.fisica.net%2Fblog%2Findex.htm' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3713351170951673128/1848160459529922576/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='https://www.blogger.com/comment.g?blogID=3713351170951673128&amp;postID=1848160459529922576' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3713351170951673128/posts/default/1848160459529922576'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3713351170951673128/posts/default/1848160459529922576'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://www.fisica.net/blog/2008/12/carta-de-einstein-vargas.html' title='Carta de Einstein a Vargas'/><author><name>Alberto Ricardo Präss</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/00494192447938250801</uri><email>albertoprass@gmail.com</email><gd:extendedProperty xmlns:gd='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005' name='OpenSocialUserId' value='08794662322081882193'/></author><thr:total xmlns:thr='http://purl.org/syndication/thread/1.0'>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3713351170951673128.post-7756902881355675231</id><published>2008-12-17T16:05:00.000-08:00</published><updated>2008-12-17T16:10:35.966-08:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Política'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Prêmio Nobel'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Física'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Obama'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Estados Unidos'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Energia'/><title type='text'>Obama escolhe Steven Chu, Prêmio Nobel de Física, para secretário de Energia</title><content type='html'>O presidente eleito dos Estados Unidos, Barack Obama, anunciou nesta segunda-feira que seu futuro secretário de Energia será o Prêmio Nobel de Física Steven Chu, um defensor das energias renováveis e alternativas.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Steven Chu, filho de imigrantes chineses, estudou na Universidade de Stanford, na Califórnia (oeste), e ganhou o Prêmio Nobel de Física em 1997 por seu trabalho sobre "os métodos de esfriamento e captura de átomos com laser".&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Chu é diretor do Laboratório Nacional Lawrence Berkeley desde 2004 e se especializou em mudança climática.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;LINKS:&lt;br /&gt;&lt;a href="http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1997/chu-autobio.html"&gt;Autobiografia de Steven Chu no site da Fundação Nobel&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven_Chu"&gt;Biografia de Steven Chu na Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/3713351170951673128-7756902881355675231?l=www.fisica.net%2Fblog%2Findex.htm' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3713351170951673128/7756902881355675231/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='https://www.blogger.com/comment.g?blogID=3713351170951673128&amp;postID=7756902881355675231' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3713351170951673128/posts/default/7756902881355675231'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3713351170951673128/posts/default/7756902881355675231'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://www.fisica.net/blog/2008/12/obama-escolhe-steven-chu-prmio-nobel-de.html' title='Obama escolhe Steven Chu, Prêmio Nobel de Física, para secretário de Energia'/><author><name>Alberto Ricardo Präss</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/00494192447938250801</uri><email>albertoprass@gmail.com</email><gd:extendedProperty xmlns:gd='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005' name='OpenSocialUserId' value='08794662322081882193'/></author><thr:total xmlns:thr='http://purl.org/syndication/thread/1.0'>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3713351170951673128.post-3597099783392026337</id><published>2008-12-17T14:14:00.000-08:00</published><updated>2008-12-17T14:15:44.307-08:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Vetores'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Física'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Mecânica Clássica'/><title type='text'>História dos Vetores</title><content type='html'>&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family:ARIAL;"&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family:ARIAL;"&gt;A lei do paralelogramo para a adição de vetores é tão intuitiva que sua origem é desconhecida. Pode ter aparecido em um trabalho, agora perdido, de &lt;a href="http://cwx.prenhall.com/bookbind/pubbooks/thomas_br/chapter1/medialib/custom3/bios/aristotle.htm"&gt;Aristóteles&lt;/a&gt; (384--322 A&lt;span style="font-variant: small-caps;"&gt;.C.&lt;/span&gt;), e está na Mecânica de Herão (primeiro século d.C.) de Alexandria. Também era&lt;span style=""&gt;  &lt;/span&gt;o primeiro corolário no Principia Mathematica (1687) de &lt;a href="http://cwx.prenhall.com/bookbind/pubbooks/thomas_br/chapter1/medialib/custom3/bios/newton.htm"&gt;Isaac Newton&lt;/a&gt; (1642--1727). No Principia, Newton lidou extensivamente com o que agora são consideradas entidades vetoriais (por exemplo, velocidade, força), mas nunca com o conceito de um vetor. O estudo sistemático e o uso de vetores foram fenômenos do século 19 e início do século 20.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;  &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;  &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family:ARIAL;"&gt;Vetores nasceram nas primeiras duas décadas do século 19 com as representações geométricas de números complexos. Caspar Wessel (1745--1818), Jean Robert Argand (1768--1822), &lt;a href="http://cwx.prenhall.com/bookbind/pubbooks/thomas_br/chapter1/medialib/custom3/bios/gauss.htm"&gt;Carl Friedrich Gauss&lt;/a&gt; (1777--1855) e pelo menos um ou dois outros, conceberam números complexos como pontos no plano bidimensional, isto é, como vetores bidimensionais. Matemáticos e cientistas trabalharam com estes novos números e os aplicaram de várias maneiras; por exemplo, Gauss fez um uso crucial de números complexos para provar o Teorema Fundamental da Álgebra (1799). Em 1837, &lt;a href="http://cwx.prenhall.com/bookbind/pubbooks/thomas_br/chapter1/medialib/custom3/bios/hamilton.htm"&gt;William Rowan Hamilton&lt;/a&gt; (1805-1865) mostrou que os números complexos poderiam ser considerados abstratamente como pares ordenados (a, b) de números reais. Esta idéia era parte de uma campanha de muitos matemáticos, incluindo Hamilton, para procurar uma maneira de estender os "números" bidimensionais para três dimensões; mas ninguém conseguiu isto preservando as propriedades algébricas básicas dos números reais e complexos.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;  &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family:ARIAL;"&gt;Em 1827, August Ferdinand Möbius publicou um pequeno livro, The Barycentric Calculus&lt;span style=""&gt;, no qual introduziu diretamente segmentos de reta que eram denotados por letras do alfabeto, vetores na essência, mas não no nome. No seu estudo de centros de gravidade e geometria projetiva, Möbius desenvolveu uma aritmética destes segmentos de reta; adicionou-os e mostrou como multiplicá-los por um número real. Seus interesses estavam em outro lugar, contudo, e ninguém se importou em notar a importância destes cálculos.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;  &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family:ARIAL;"&gt;Depois de muita frustração, Hamilton estava finalmente inspirado a desistir da procura por um sistema "numérico" tridimensional e em vez disso, inventou um sistema de quatro dimensões que chamou de quatérnios. Nas suas próprias palavras: 16 de outubro de 1843,&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;  &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="margin: 5pt 35.25pt 5pt 33.75pt; text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family:ARIAL;"&gt;O que parecia ser uma segunda-feira e um dia de Conselho da Academia Real Irlandesa - eu estava caminhando para participar e presidir, …, ao longo do Canal Real, … uma sub-corrente de pensamento estava na minha mente, que finalmente deu um resultado, o qual não é muito dizer que logo senti a importância. Um circuito elétrico pareceu fechar; e uma faísca surgiu, ... Não pude resistir ao impulso ... escrever com uma faca sobre uma pedra da ponte Brougham, quando passamos por ela, a fórmula fundamental... .&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;  &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family:ARIAL;"&gt;Os quatérnios de Hamilton foram escritos, q = w + ix + jy + kz, onde w, x, y, e z eram números reais. Hamilton rapidamente percebeu que seus quatérnios consistiam de duas partes distintas. O primeiro termo, o qual chamou de escalar e "x, y, z&lt;span style=""&gt; para suas componentes retangulares, ou projeções em três eixos retangulares, ele [referindo-se a si próprio] foi induzido a chamar a expressão trinomial propriamente dita, assim como a reta a qual ela representa, de um VETOR". Hamilton usou suas "fórmulas fundamentais",&lt;span style=""&gt;  &lt;/span&gt;i&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; = j&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; = k&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; = -ijk = -1, para multiplicar quatérnios, e imediatamente descobriu que o produto, q&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;q&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = - q&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;q&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, não era comutativo.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;  &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family:ARIAL;"&gt;Hamilton tinha se tornado cavaleiro em 1835, e era um cientista conhecido que já tinha feito um trabalho fundamental em ótica e física teórica na época que inventou quatérnios, por isso foi imediatamente reconhecido. Em troca, devotou os 22 anos restantes de sua vida ao seu desenvolvimento e promoção. Escreveu dois livros completos sobre o assunto, Lectures on Quaternions (1853) e Elements of Quaternions (1866), detalhando não apenas a álgebra dos quatérnios mas também como poderiam ser usados em geometria. Em certo ponto Hamilton escreveu, "eu ainda devo afirmar que esta descoberta me parece ser tão importante para a metade do século 19 como a descoberta de flúxions foi para o final do século 17". Ele teve um discípulo, Peter Guthrie Tait (1831--1901), que, na década de 1850, começou a aplicar quatérnios a problemas em eletricidade e magnetismo e a outros problemas em física. Na segunda metade do século 19, a defesa de Tait dos quatérnios provocou reações calorosas, ambas positivas e negativas, na comunidade científica.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;  &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family:ARIAL;"&gt;Ao redor da mesma época que Hamilton descobriu os quatérnios, &lt;a href="http://cwx.prenhall.com/bookbind/pubbooks/thomas_br/chapter1/medialib/custom3/bios/grassmann.htm"&gt;Hermann Grassmann&lt;/a&gt; (1809--1877) estava escrevendo The Calculus of Extension (1844), agora muito conhecido pelo seu título em alemão, Ausdehnungslehre.&lt;span style=""&gt; Em 1832, Grassmann começou a desenvolver "um novo &lt;/span&gt;&lt;a href="http://cwx.prenhall.com/bookbind/pubbooks/thomas_br/chapter1/medialib/custom3/topics/derivatives.htm"&gt;cálculo&lt;/a&gt; geométrico" como parte do seu estudo da teoria de marés, e subseqüentemente usou estas ferramentas para simplificar partes de dois trabalhos clássicos, o Analytical Mechanics de &lt;a href="http://cwx.prenhall.com/bookbind/pubbooks/thomas_br/chapter1/medialib/custom3/bios/lagrange.htm"&gt;Joseph Louis Lagrange&lt;/a&gt; (1736-1813) e o Celestial Mechanics de &lt;a href="http://cwx.prenhall.com/bookbind/pubbooks/thomas_br/chapter1/medialib/custom3/bios/laplace.htm"&gt;Pierre Simon Laplace&lt;/a&gt; (1749-1827).  Em seu Ausdehnungslehre, primeiro Grassmann expandiu o conceito de vetores a partir da familiar 2 ou 3 dimensões para um número arbitrário, n, de dimensões; isto estendeu grandemente as idéias de espaço. Segundo, e ainda mais geralmente, Grassmann antecipou grande parte da álgebra matricial e linear moderna e análise vetorial e tensorial.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;  &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family:ARIAL;"&gt;Infelizmente, o Ausdehnungslehre &lt;span style=""&gt;tinha dois pontos contra si. Primeiro, era muito abstrato, faltando exemplos explicativos e foi escrito em um estilo obscuro com uma notação extremamente complicada. Mesmo depois de tê-lo estudado, Möbius não tinha sido capaz de entendê-lo completamente. Segundo, Grassmann era um professor de ensino médio sem uma reputação científica importante (comparado a Hamilton). Embora seu trabalho tenha sido amplamente ignorado, Grassmann promoveu sua mensagem nas décadas de 1840 e 1850 com aplicações em eletrodinâmica e geometria de curvas e superfícies, mas sem muito sucesso geral. Em 1862, publicou uma segunda edição revisada do seu Ausdehnungslehre, mas também era escrito de maneira obscura e era muito abstrato para os matemáticos de sua época e praticamente teve a mesma sina da primeira edição. No final de sua vida, Grassmann distanciou-se da matemática e iniciou uma segunda carreira de pesquisa muito bem sucedida, em fonética e lingüística comparada. Finalmente, nas décadas de 1860 e 1870, o Ausdehnungslehre começou lentamente a ser entendido e apreciado e Grassmann começou a receber algum reconhecimento favorável por sua matemática visionária. Uma terceira edição do Ausdehnungslehre foi publicada em 1878, ano seguinte de sua morte.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;  &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family:ARIAL;"&gt;Durante a metade do século 19, Benjamin Peirce (1809--1880) era, de longe, o mais proeminente matemático nos Estados Unidos, e se referiu a Hamilton como, "o monumental autor dos quatérnios". Peirce foi um professor de matemática e astronomia em Harvard de 1833 a 1880 e escreveu um enorme livro chamado System of Analytical Mechanics (1855; segunda edição 1872), no qual, surpreendentemente não incluiu quatérnios. Em vez disso, Peirce expandiu o que chamou de "esta maravilhosa álgebra do espaço" ao escrever seu livro Linear Associative Algebra (1870), um trabalho totalmente de álgebra abstrata. Dizia-se que quatérnios era o assunto favorito de Peirce e ele teve muitos alunos que se tornaram matemáticos e que escreveram um bom número de livros e artigos sobre o assunto.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;  &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family:ARIAL;"&gt;&lt;a href="http://cwx.prenhall.com/bookbind/pubbooks/thomas_br/chapter1/medialib/custom3/bios/maxwell.htm"&gt;James Clerk Maxwell&lt;/a&gt; (1831--1879) foi um proponente dos quatérnios perspicaz e crítico. Maxwell e Tait eram escoceses, tinham estudado juntos em Edimburgo e na Universidade de Cambridge e dividiam os mesmos interesses em física matemática. No que chamou de "classificação matemática de quantidades físicas", Maxwell dividiu as variáveis de física em duas categorias, escalares e vetoriais. Então, em termos desta estratificação, apontou que usar quatérnios tornava transparente as analogias matemáticas em física que tinham sido descobertas por &lt;a href="http://cwx.prenhall.com/bookbind/pubbooks/thomas_br/chapter1/medialib/custom3/bios/thomson.htm"&gt;Lord Kelvin&lt;/a&gt; (Sir William Thomson, 1824--1907) entre o escoamento de calor e a distribuição de forças eletrostáticas. Contudo, nos seus artigos, especialmente em seu muito influente Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism (1873), Maxwell enfatizou a importância do que descreveu como "idéias de quatérnios ... ou a doutrina de vetores" como um "método matemático ... um método de pensar". Ao mesmo tempo, apontou a natureza não homogênea do produto de quatérnios, e avisou cientistas para não usar "os métodos de quatérnios" com seus detalhes envolvendo os três componentes vetoriais. Essencialmente, Maxwell estava sugerindo uma análise puramente vetorial.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;  &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family:ARIAL;"&gt;William Kingdon Clifford (1845--1879) expressou "admiração profunda" pelo Ausdehnungslehre &lt;span style=""&gt;de Grassmann e era claramente a favor de vetores, os quais freqüentemente chamava de passos, em lugar de quatérnios. Em seu Elements of Dynamic&lt;/span&gt; (1878), Clifford decompôs o produto de dois quatérnios em dois produtos vetoriais muito diferentes, os quais chamou de produto escalar e produto vetorial. Para análise vetorial, disse "minha convicção é que seus princípios exerceram uma ampla influência sobre o futuro da ciência matemática". Embora o&lt;span style=""&gt;  &lt;/span&gt;Elements of Dynamic&lt;span style=""&gt; fosse supostamente o primeiro de uma seqüência de livros-texto, Clifford não teve a oportunidade de seguir estas idéias porque morreu jovem. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;  &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style=""&gt;&lt;span style="font-family:ARIAL;"&gt; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style="font-family:ARIAL;"&gt;O desenvolvimento da álgebra vetorial e da análise vetorial como conhecemos hoje foi revelado primeiramente em um conjunto de notas de aula feitos por &lt;a href="http://cwx.prenhall.com/bookbind/pubbooks/thomas_br/chapter1/medialib/custom3/bios/gibbs.htm"&gt;J. Willard Gibbs&lt;/a&gt; (1839--1903) feito para seus alunos na Universidade de Yale. Gibbs nasceu em New Haven, Connecticut (seu pai também foi professor em Yale) e suas conquistas científicas principais foram em física, termodinâmica propriamente dita. Maxwell apoiava o trabalho de Gibbs em termodinâmica, especialmente as apresentações geométricas dos resultados de Gibbs. Gibbs tomou conhecimento dos quatérnios quando leu o Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism de Maxwell, e Gibbs também estudou o Ausdehnungslehre&lt;span style=""&gt; de Grassmann. Concluiu que vetores forneceriam uma ferramenta mais eficiente para seu trabalho em física. Assim, começando em 1881, Gibbs imprimiu por conta própria notas de aulas sobre análise vetorial para seus alunos, as quais foram amplamente distribuídas para estudiosos nos Estados Unidos, na Inglaterra e na Europa. O primeiro livro moderno sobre análise vetorial em inglês foi Vector Analysis &lt;/span&gt;(1901), as notas de Gibbs colecionadas por um de seus alunos de pós-graduação, e Edwin B. Wilson (1879--1964). Ironicamente, Wilson cursou a graduação em Harvard (B.A. 1899) onde tinha aprendido sobre quatérnios com seu professor, James Mills Peirce (1834--1906), um dos filhos de Benjamin Peirce. O livro de Gibbs/Wilson foi reimpresso em uma edição em 1960. Uma outra contribuição para o moderno entendimento e uso de vetores foi feita por Jean Frenet (1816--1990). Frenet entrou na École normale supérieure em 1840, então estudou em Toulouse, onde escreveu sua tese de doutorado em 1847. A tese de Frenet continha a teoria de curvas espaciais e as fórmulas conhecidas como as fórmulas de Frenet-Serret (o triedro de Frenet). Frenet contribuiu com apenas seis fórmulas enquanto que Serret contribui com nove. Frenet publicou esta informação no&lt;span style=""&gt;  &lt;/span&gt;Journal de mathematique pures et appliques em 1852. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;  &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family:ARIAL;"&gt;Na década de 1890 e na primeira década do século 20, Tait e alguns outros ridicularizaram vetores e defenderam quatérnios enquanto outros cientistas e matemáticos desenharam seu próprio método vetorial. &lt;a href="http://cwx.prenhall.com/bookbind/pubbooks/thomas_br/chapter1/medialib/custom3/bios/heaviside.htm"&gt;Oliver Heaviside&lt;/a&gt; (1850--1925), um físico autodidata que foi grandemente influenciado por Maxwell, publicou artigos e seu livro Electromagnetic Theory (três volumes, 1893, 1899, 1912) nos quais atacou quatérnios e desenvolveu sua própria análise vetorial. Heaviside tinha recebido cópias das notas de Gibbs e falou muito bem delas. Ao introduzir as teorias de Maxwell sobre eletricidade e magnetismo na Alemanha (1894), os métodos vetoriais foram defendidos e vários livros sobre análise vetorial em alemão se seguiram. Os métodos vetoriais foram introduzidos na Itália (1887, 1888, 1897), na Rússia (1907) e na Holanda (1903). Vetores agora são a linguagem moderna de grande parte da física e da matemática aplicada e continuam tendo seu próprio interesse matemático intrínseco.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;span style="font-family:ARIAL;"&gt;Fonte: &lt;a href="http://cwx.prenhall.com/bookbind/pubbooks/thomas_br/chapter1/medialib/custom3/topics/vectors.htm"&gt;Prenhall&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/3713351170951673128-3597099783392026337?l=www.fisica.net%2Fblog%2Findex.htm' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3713351170951673128/3597099783392026337/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='https://www.blogger.com/comment.g?blogID=3713351170951673128&amp;postID=3597099783392026337' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3713351170951673128/posts/default/3597099783392026337'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3713351170951673128/posts/default/3597099783392026337'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://www.fisica.net/blog/2008/12/histria-dos-vetores.html' title='História dos Vetores'/><author><name>Alberto Ricardo Präss</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/00494192447938250801</uri><email>albertoprass@gmail.com</email><gd:extendedProperty xmlns:gd='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005' name='OpenSocialUserId' value='08794662322081882193'/></author><thr:total xmlns:thr='http://purl.org/syndication/thread/1.0'>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3713351170951673128.post-1809203664075881309</id><published>2008-11-11T17:27:00.000-08:00</published><updated>2008-11-11T17:33:11.045-08:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Aceleradores de Partículas'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Relatividade Restrita'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Fermilab'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Teoria da relatividade'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Partículas Elementares'/><title type='text'>Einstein em Xeque</title><content type='html'>&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;A teoria da relatividade foi posta de novo em causa numa experiência conduzida no acelerador de partículas do laboratório Fermilab, perto de Chicago. No entanto, como o relata o astrofísico Stuart Mufson e os seus colegas, a teoria foi posta em causa... mas passou o teste.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Os experimentalistas tentaram refutar a chamada "invariância de Lorentz", ou seja, uma previsão de Einstein de que partículas com massa e sem massa se comportam de forma idêntica, independentemente da maneira como são aceleradas ou como rodam.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Conforme relatam num artigo acabado de publicar na revista "Physics Review Letters", os neutrinos gerados pelo Fermilab portaram-se da maneira prevista por Einstein ao atravessarem o subsolo desde o gerador até um detector mergulhado a 103 metros de profundidade e a 750 metros de distância. Para controle, os físicos compararam as medidas obtidas nesse detector com as registadas num outro, situado no Fermilab.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Neutrinos são partículas muito curiosas. Viajam a uma velocidade perto da da luz e não são afectados por campos magnéticos nem gravitacionais. Por essa razão, podem atravessar praticamente incólumes o nosso planeta. Habitualmente são detectados, e com grande dificuldade, em instrumentos muito sensíveis mergulhados em minas, como foi o caso na experiência. Situados a profundidades razoáveis, esses instrumentos estão protegidos de outras radiações, como raios cósmicos.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Para produzir os neutrinos, os cientistas fazem incidir uma fonte de protões sobre um alvo de carbono. A colisão provoca a criação de partículas chamadas mesões pi. Algumas destas decaem, criando neutrinos que viajam em direcção aos detectores. Uma vez que a geração de neutrinos é feita sobre a Terra, em rotação sobre si própria, o feixe de partículas também roda.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Está em causa algo mais do que uma conclusão, entre outras, da teoria da relatividade. Os astrofísicos têm procurado explicações para vários problemas intrigantes na expansão inicial do Universo. Algumas das explicações plausíveis que têm sido avançadas, entre as quais as de João Magueijo, contradizem vários pressupostos e conclusões da relatividade. Daí o interesse em colocar à prova a teoria de Einstein. Se ela for contraditada pela experiência, as alternativas ganham nova força.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Tal como afirmou o autor principal do artigo agora publicado, o facto de não se terem detectado violações da dita invariância de Lorentz não significa uma confirmação da sua validade. Pode bem acontecer que os "efeitos de campo sejam tão extraordinariamente pequenos que apenas possam ser detectados com instrumentos muitíssimo mais sensíveis". Os físicos continuam a procurar experiências que ponham Einstein em xeque.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Os cientistas estão mais preocupados em destronar teorias do que em defendê-las. Quem conseguir contraditar a relatividade e substituí-la por uma teoria mais potente terá dado uma grande contribuição à ciência. Os físicos continuam a tentar...&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Fonte: &lt;a href="http://aeiou.expresso.pt/gen.pl?p=stories&amp;amp;op=view&amp;amp;fokey=ex.stories/444058"&gt;Expresso&lt;/a&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/3713351170951673128-1809203664075881309?l=www.fisica.net%2Fblog%2Findex.htm' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3713351170951673128/1809203664075881309/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='https://www.blogger.com/comment.g?blogID=3713351170951673128&amp;postID=1809203664075881309' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3713351170951673128/posts/default/1809203664075881309'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3713351170951673128/posts/default/1809203664075881309'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://www.fisica.net/blog/2008/11/einstein-em-xeque.html' title='Einstein em Xeque'/><author><name>Alberto Ricardo Präss</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/00494192447938250801</uri><email>albertoprass@gmail.com</email><gd:extendedProperty xmlns:gd='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005' name='OpenSocialUserId' value='08794662322081882193'/></author><thr:total xmlns:thr='http://purl.org/syndication/thread/1.0'>0</thr:total></entry><entry><id>tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3713351170951673128.post-1835517580960770039</id><published>2008-11-11T15:13:00.000-08:00</published><updated>2008-11-11T16:52:16.674-08:00</updated><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='Física'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='spintrônica'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='físicos'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='mecânica quântica'/><category scheme='http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#' term='físicas'/><title type='text'>Spintrônica abre novos rumos ao associar a carga dos elétrons à sua rotação</title><content type='html'>&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt; &lt;div id="selopat"&gt; &lt;!-- &lt;img src="/tecnologia/_img/selo_lateral.jpg" width="130" height="50" border="0" alt="" /&gt;  --&gt;    &lt;/div&gt;Muita gente fissurada em tecnologia ouve falar em spintrônica mas não sabe direito o que é. Parece até coisa do futuro. Mas quando ligamos nosso computador e o disco rígido começa a girar lá dentro mal podemos imaginar que nesse dispositivo a spintrônica já é aplicada há um bom tempo.    &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Essa ciência permitiu literalmente diminuir o tamanho físico do bit gravado na superfície metálica do disco, possibilitando um aumento brutal na densidade de informações gravadas. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;A dra. Tatiana Rappoport, professora da UFRJ com doutorado em Física, explica que a spintrônica já participa da nossa realidade tecnológica há mais ou menos uns dez anos. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;- Cerca de 95% dos discos rígidos hoje no mercado já utilizam essa tecnologia. Mas a spintrônica é uma ciência repleta de futuras aplicações, quase todas fascinantes - disse. - Só para se ter idéia da sua importância, os dois físicos que ganharam o Nobel recentemente, Albert Fert e Peter Grünberg, foram os precursores da spintrônica, com seus estudos sobre magneto-resistência gigante. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Para explicar de forma simples o que é spintrônica, Tatiana lembra que, enquanto no disco rígido os bits são magnéticos, na placa-mãe eles são eletricidade, ou seja, valem "1" quando passa corrente elétrica e valem "0" quando não passa. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;- A spintrônica é a eletrônica mesclada com magnetismo, ou seja, magnetoeletrônica. É uma ciência que leva em conta que os elétrons giram e, por isso, têm um campo magnético associado. Essa rotação dos elétrons é o chamado "spin", termo inglês que significa girar - esclarece. - Além da miniaturização, outra aplicação da spintrônica é permitir um menor consumo de energia em dispositivos eletrônicos. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;O objetivo futuro dessa ciência ciência emergente é mesclar dois mundos, o da eletricidade e o do magnetismo. Mais especificamente, permitir o controle elétrico das propriedades magnéticas de um material e, reciprocamente, possibilitar o controle magnético das propriedades elétricas desse mesmo material. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;A densidade de informações nos HDs só não é maior porque a spintrônica por ora só é aplicável à leitura dos dados gravados. Para gravar informações no disco, por enquanto, o jeito é usar a moda antiga, ou seja, indução elétrica - uma bobina imprime a magnetização do bit no metal do disco girante. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;- Mas já existem várias possibilidades científicas sendo estudadas com o intuito de escrever de forma mais precisa em HDs, aumentando a resolução dos bits gravados no metal - explica Tatiana. - Um desses filões de pesquisa é o chamado STT (spin torque transfer), ou transferência por de spin. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Os chips convencionais que estávamos acostumados a ver, tais como SRAMs (memória de acesso aleatório estático) e DRAMs (memória de acesso aleatório dinâmico) perdiam as informações armazenadas caso se desligasse a eletricidade. Para resolver essa chateação, foram criadas MRAMs, memórias magnéticas de acesso aleatório, em que os dados digitais não são gravados eletricamente mas sim por magnetismo. Ou seja, pode-se desligar a força e a memória não se apaga. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;A geração mais recente das MRAMs usa o efeito de torque de spin para programar os bits numéricos. Com um pequeno pulso de corrente elétrica é possível programar o estado de memória da célula magnética, o que representa uma vitória naquele objetivo de reciprocidade - usar magnetismo para controlar a eletricidade e, no caso, usar eletricidade para controlar o magnetismo. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Uma coisa que ainda atrapalhava um pouco a viabilidade dessas memórias era a demora na magnetização -- 10 nanossegundos para fazer uma gravação. Parece pouco, mas não é. No entanto, recentes pesquisas realizadas na Alemanha usando um efeito chamado "reversão balística de magnetização por torque de spin" conseguiu reduzir esse tempo para apenas 1 nanossegundo. Assim, espera-se que, em breve, memórias MRAM serão quase tão rápidas quanto as antigas SRAMs e DRAMs. Com relação aos discos rígidos, essa mesma técnica de toque de spin permitirá gravar informações mais densas neles. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Em termos de mercado, as aplicações da spintrônica têm sido em metais, como é o caso dos discos rígidos. Daqui para a frente, porém, o grande lance será a spintrônica em semicondutores, que abrirá um leque surpreendente de novas aplicações, incluindo o tão sonhado computador quântico. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Embora ainda um pouco longe de ser implementado, o computador quântico terá como grande vantagem a altíssima velocidade de processamento, permitindo resolver problemas altamente complexos, tais como criptografia, fatoração de números primos, pesquisa de informação em bancos de dados não ordenados etc. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;- Talvez a primeira implementação do computador quântico seja algo envolvendo spintrônica e optoeletrônica, ou seja, circuitos envolvendo magnetismo (spin), fótons (luz = óptica) e elétrons (eletricidade) - devaneia a cientista. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Um dos primeiros passos rumo ao computador quântico foi a obtenção do bit quântico, ou qubit, em que um único elétron é isolado e o sentido de seu spin (rotação) determina seu valor zero ou um. Com dois qubits pode-se construir com apenas dois elétrons uma . &lt;/p&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;- O qubit não é o elétron em si, mas sim o spin do elétron - esclarece Tatiana.  &lt;/p&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Algumas experiências recentes com qubits foram feitas em filmes finos de material semicondutor em que os elétrons só podem se mover num plano, ou seja, em duas dimensões. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;" class="opn ftr"&gt;&lt;blockquote&gt;&lt;span class="abr"&gt;"&lt;/span&gt;     &lt;span class="frs"&gt;  Usando condutores de ouro e certas voltagens, a gente obriga um elétron a ficar confinado num único ponto, e com spin definido  &lt;/span&gt;     &lt;span class="fch"&gt;"&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;hr style="margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px;"&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style="text-align: justify;"&gt;   &lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;- Usando condutores de ouro e certas voltagens, a gente obriga um elétron a ficar confinado num único ponto, e com spin definido - afirma a cientista. - Já se domina todo o processo de manipulação de spin de um elétron assim confinado. Em 2007 foi a primeira vez que os nossos colegas conseguiram fazer a última coisa que faltava, ou seja, efetuar o giro o spin. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Ao explicar esses conceitos e outros ainda mais complexos e virtualmente impublicáveis aqui na nossa Revista Digital, Tatiana vibra e se entusiasma, entre slides herméticos e vídeos cabeludíssimos. Ela foi entrevistada no Laboratório de Semicondutores da PUC-Rio, onde, entre diversas outras atividades, fabrica-se semicondutores específicos para as pesquisas em andamento. Uma vez prontos, esses semicondutores, lá mesmo na PUC, eles são avaliados em suas características ópticas e elétricas. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;- A caracterização magnética nós fazemos na UFRJ, lá no Fundão, onde temos um laboratório específico para essa finalidade - explica a pesquisadora. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Tatiana recebeu em 2006 menção honrosa no Programa de Bolsas Estudo para Jovens Cientistas oferecido em parceria por L'Oréal, UNESCO e Academia Brasileira de Ciências. Mas o melhor lhe aconteceu no ano seguinte, quando foi uma das sete jovens mulheres cientistas laureadas no Brasil, recebendo um prêmio de US$ 20 mil por sua pesquisa sobre manipulação de spins e cargas. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Tatiana vive e respira Física. E explica essa ciência complicada com a leveza de que está contando um caso. Talvez não à toa, ela se casou com um físico. Tatiana é adepta ferrenha de Linux e de sistemas abertos em geral e, quando escolheu adquirir seu laptop Mac, que já tem cinco anos de uso, teve lá seus motivos. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;- Por trás dessa maravilha o que roda é na verdade um BSD [o UNIX de Berkeley] embelezado - esclarece. - Mas preciso mesmo é comprar um notebook novo, e ele também vai ser um Mac, é claro. &lt;/p&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;A o site da pesquisadora possui muitas aulas em PDFs, clqiue &lt;a href="http://omnis.if.ufrj.br/%7Etgrappoport"&gt;AQUI!&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;Fonte: &lt;a href="http://oglobo.globo.com/tecnologia/mat/2008/10/26/spintronica_abre_novos_rumos_ao_associar_carga_dos_eletrons_sua_rotacao-586125176.asp"&gt;O GLOBO - Publicada em &lt;strong&gt;27/10/2008&lt;/strong&gt; por   &lt;cite&gt;Carlos Alberto Teixeira&lt;/cite&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p style="text-align: justify;"&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div class="blogger-post-footer"&gt;&lt;img width='1' height='1' src='https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/tracker/3713351170951673128-1835517580960770039?l=www.fisica.net%2Fblog%2Findex.htm' alt='' /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</content><link rel='replies' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3713351170951673128/1835517580960770039/comments/default' title='Post Comments'/><link rel='replies' type='text/html' href='https://www.blogger.com/comment.g?blogID=3713351170951673128&amp;postID=1835517580960770039' title='0 Comments'/><link rel='edit' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3713351170951673128/posts/default/1835517580960770039'/><link rel='self' type='application/atom+xml' href='http://www.blogger.com/feeds/3713351170951673128/posts/default/1835517580960770039'/><link rel='alternate' type='text/html' href='http://www.fisica.net/blog/2008/11/spintrnica-abre-novos-rumos-ao-associar.html' title='Spintrônica abre novos rumos ao associar a carga dos elétrons à sua rotação'/><author><name>Alberto Ricardo Präss</name><uri>http://www.blogger.com/profile/00494192447938250801</uri><email>albertoprass@gmail.com</email><gd:extendedProperty xmlns:gd='http://schemas.google.com/g/2005' name='OpenSocialUserId' value='08794662322081882193'/></author><thr:total xmlns:thr='http://purl.org/syndication/thread/1.0'>0</thr:total></entry></feed>